The impressive spectacles of the Hudson-Fulton Celebration of 1909 were meant to educate, enthrall, and unify New Yorkers, as it debuted New York City to the world. Yet perhaps none of the elements of this grand celebration were as delicately wrought as the Naval Parade and the Military Parade. Requiring international cooperation and goodwill, these two magnificent parades brought vast numbers of foreign troops and into NYC harbor terrible warships to American soil.

These two key moments in the Hudson-Fulton Celebration were not considered actions of war or acts of intimidation. Rather, the Military and Naval Parades were heralded as peaceful unity, as grand displays touting the new world diplomacy. However, many factors were at play in realizing the ambitions for the Naval and Military Parades.

In 1909, William Howard Taft, President of the United States, who served under Theodore Roosevelt as the Secretary of the Navy, was chosen and groomed to continue many of the policies of Roosevelt’s own administration. Foremost in Roosevelt’s mind, was the policy of “Big Stick diplomacy”.

During this period. . .  the U.S. Navy accomplished great strides with technology. Superbattleships of the dreadnought design emerged from drawing boards, thereby revolutionizing fleets around the world. Battle cruisers, destroyers, submarines, and naval aviation began their ascendancy from the first decade of this century. ^[i]

Under this two-term president, the U.S. Navy was expanded so greatly as to move from the fifth most powerful armada in the world to the second, only dwarfed by Great Britain.

The simultaneous technological weapons boom mirrored the rapid growth of the Navy. The advent of the machine gun and of armored warships led to an arms race between the United States, Europe, and Japan.

The international implications of American interest in the Caribbean and South America became increasingly linked to the European arms race, although probably only the Navy Department sensed it. Naval rankings and detailed discussions of foreign ship development became a regular part of the department’s annual report.^[ii]

Theodore Roosevelt was not blind to the growing tensions in Europe and with Japan regarding the United States’ increasingly imperialistic policies. President Roosevelt was acutely aware that the expansion of the Monroe Doctrine via the Roosevelt Corollary of 1904, which gave the U.S. protective dominion over the entire Western Hemisphere, would create unease. He realized that the country would have to move forward boldly to retain both power and goodwill.

Theodore Roosevelt decided to take a significant diplomatic gamble. Losing could result in a world war or unstoppable attacks on American soil. But winning would create a détente across the hemispheres, secure the United States’ place as a world power, and exhibit the might of the U.S. Navy.

. . .Roosevelt embraced Social Darwinistic thought and believed that nations were in a perpetual struggle for resources and political survival. The balance of power among nations dominated his thinking as one result, but as another consequence his interest in international affairs went beyond military and political concerns and into cultural and social realms.^[iii]

Roosevelt believed that involvement in this struggle for political supremacy would shape American national character. Economic opportunities and international responsibilities would allow the United States to experience a growth in patriotism and fortify civic virtue.

Theodore Roosevelt, as Commander-in-Chief, ordered the United States Navy to re-position to the port of San Francisco. He wanted to move significant numbers of battleships from ports on the East Coast to the port of San Francisco between December 1907 and February 1909. In doing so, the American battleship fleet would circumnavigate the globe, stopping in various world ports to foster diplomatic relationships. The world cruise of this Great White Fleet was undoubtedly the largest peacetime naval demonstration ever seen before or since.

The itineraries of the Great White Fleet saw the battleships landing in the ports of every major power over the course of its two year cruise. The ports of call included Yokohama, Sydney, Suez, and Manila.

The Great White Fleet was well received from England to Australia to Japan. The particularly warm relations with England and France signaled the United States’ approval of the strengthening Anglo- French Entente.  U.S. battleships had in recent years refused invitations from the German Kaiser and upon accepting certain others, sent older battleships to call. The strain between Germany and the United States was reflective of the growing tension over the naval and military arms race. Yet, the actions of the Great White Fleet belied this tension, seeking to create anew bonds of international cooperation and friendship. In doing so, President Roosevelt adeptly managed the tenuous balance of poweracross the Northern Hemisphere.

Perhaps equally important was the vivid impression which the fleet left behind as to the ability of the United States to guarantee the stability of the western hemisphere against European aggression.^[iv]

The overwhelming strength of the Great White Fleet, both visually and militarily impressive, showcased the U.S. Navy’s technological advances, military discipline, and sheer size. In doing so, Theodore Roosevelt sought to impress upon the nations of the world the power and adroitness of “Big Stick diplomacy”. The world tour of the American battleship fleet re-affirmed the United States as a world power, with supremacy in the Western Hemisphere, and the potential to wreak serious damage in the Eastern Hemisphere, if provoked.

Of particular interest to the Great White Fleet was the United States’ relationship with Japan. The U.S. and Japan had been, in recent years, vying for control of the Pacific Ocean. The world cruise of the American battleship fleet was initially greeted with great alarm in Japan, fearing that the U.S. Navy would take tactical measures against Japan while in port under the guise of friendship. However, these fears were allayed as, across the world, the Great White Fleet left behind it a trail of friendship and good will. Moreover, there was also some feeling, particularly abroad, that for the first time the United States had come to realize its obligations as a world power in the Pacific, and that it was making a belated attempt to wrest from the Japanese their naval supremacy in those waters and restore the proper balance.^[v]

With the approval of the greatest military and naval powers behind him, Theodore Roosevelt re-asserted the authority of the United States Navy in the Pacific Ocean. The extravagant displays of the Great White Fleet, the second largest armada in the world, reminded Japan that their own navy, only the fifth largest, could not withstand a confrontation with the United States.

The success of the Great White Fleet lay not merely in its essence as an armada, which intimidated potential aggressors, but in its ability to renew diplomatic ties and generate goodwill. The warm welcomes the U.S. Navy received at home and abroad impressed the American people. Moreover, the friendship and munificence created allowed the world to view advanced naval technology as a means to ensure peace. The evolution of understanding battleships as impressive and dangerous aggressors into peacekeeping entities revolutionized the concept of naval displays. This evolution clearly informs the scholar’s understanding of the significance of both the Military and Naval Parades of the Hudson- Fulton Celebration of 1909.  

The presidential style of Theodore Roosevelt’s handpicked successor, William Howard Taft, was certainly quite different from that of his boisterous mentor. Taft shifted away from “Big Stick diplomacy”, preferring to solve international disagreements and conflicts through negotiations. Moreover, Taft practiced a policy called “Dollar diplomacy”, in which the United States helped to fund projects and infrastructure in South America. This mode of diplomacy still affirmed the United States’ power and control over the entire Western Hemisphere but sought to give the countries of South America more economic freedom, potentially freeing all the economic markets of the Western Hemisphere from possible stagnation. Taft’s foreign policy was more overtly geared to world peace and international growth and cooperation than Theodore Roosevelt’s had been. Taft was certainly a less intimidating president, but he was, nevertheless, still buttressed by the impressive power of the United States Navy. Taft’s more amiable foreign policies, in conjunction with the goodwill the cruise of the Great White Fleet secured, allowed a decline in tensions across the global balance of power. Such an unspoken détente is visible in the attendance and number of foreign diplomats enthusiastically present at both the Military and Naval Parades.

While international politics and diplomacy are the most prominent subtexts in the Military and Naval Parades, another idea sheds light on understanding these two parades. In 1909, the United States was fully in the thrall of progressive politics and ideas. In education, progressivism sought to move learning out of the dominion of the schoolhouse and into the public domain. The ideal progressive education, both for children and adults, would occur in a more organic setting and would allow for interactions with the material being learned. To that end, historical plays and pageants were particularly encouraged.

In fact, these elements of progressive education were integrated into many events of the Hudson-Fulton Celebration of 1909. The Historical and Carnival Parades, as well as the Children’s festivals and public school programs, relied on educative interaction. However, the popularity of pageants in this progressive age became so intense that municipal authorities “began to call every street procession a pageant to glean the goodwill and success from the phenomenon. . .”^[vi]

The popularity of pageants consequently led to a rise in enthusiasm for parades. Parades fostered several of the same goals as pageants. Parades sought to unite the audience and to elicit specific emotions. The Military and Naval Parades certainly did not seek to educate the spectators in the same fashion as the Historical or Carnival Parades. Yet, these two parades sought to promote the new American ideals of international peace and cooperation and to re-assert the military might of the United States. The inclusion of foreign diplomats and foreign military did, in fact, educate the onlookers as to the United States’ international goodwill and to the identity of America’s allies. Furthermore, the great mingling of cultures in the metropolis of New York City provided a perfect stage to encourage the appreciation of friendship with foreign nations, as many immigrants hailed from the nations represented in the Military and Naval Parades.

Thus, the Naval Parade and the Military Parade were products of the same international milieu and domestic climate. Both parades simultaneously sought to promote international cooperation and American supremacy. Each was engaged in striking a balance between national pride and respectful diplomacy. The Military and the Naval Parade were both hailed with great enthusiasm by spectators and participants, foreign and domestic, in this peacetime display of national power.

The inaugural Naval Parade occurred on Saturday, September 25 1909. Like the Great White Fleet before it, the Naval Parade was anticipated with great excitement.

From every conceivable aspect this promises to be a most inspiring show, an object lesson of the progress of human effort in three hundred years, an illustration of the development of marine architecture and naval armament, a symbol of the world’s peace in the age of commerce and industry. ^[vii]

As is indicated by contemporary sources, the Naval Parade was viewed as an exhibition of the progress made in naval technology, particularly armor-plated ships and artillery guns, over the course of three hundred years. Moreover, this technology, in the wake of the success of the Great White Fleet, was viewed as a key element for ensuring world peace and cooperation.
The Naval Parade saw the largest fleet ever assembled on the western side of the Atlantic Ocean. It was also the largest international fleet in recorded history. Over thirty-eight nations participated in this great feat of diplomacy.
The British squadron included three armored cruisers and the famous battleship, Inflexible, commanded by Fleet Admiral Sir Edward Seymour. The French sent three warships under the command of Rear Admiral Le Pord while the Germans sent three protected cruisers commanded by Grand Admiral Von Koester. Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, and Mexico also sent ships and representatives to the Naval Parade. The South American republics of Argentina, Guatemala, and Cuba sent their entire, albeit small, navies.^[viii]
The significance of the foreign ships and diplomats should not be lost on a modern reader. By sending technologically advanced ships, including armored ships and those outfitted with machine guns, foreign nations, including Great Britain, sought to exhibit their naval achievements and capabilities. The presence of high-ranking officials signified to the United States the foreign nation’s respect and admiration. These seemingly insignificant details were critical in this time of tense diplomacy. Moreover, the recent success of the world cruise of the Great White Fleet certainly encouraged foreign nations to measure their naval power and diplomatic skills against those of the United States. In essence, every nation present at the Naval Parade sought to remind all others of their prowess and importance.

The American component of the Naval Parade was particularly impressive, especially in the wake of the success of the Great White Fleet. More American ships were present in New York City Harbor for the Naval Parade than had circled the world in the Great White Fleet.  The Atlantic Fleet of the United States Navy, commanded by Rear Admiral Schroeder, boasted sixteen battleships, twelve torpedo boats, four submarines, three armored cruisers, three scout cruisers, and various smaller boats.^[ix]

The magnitude of the Atlantic Fleet present at the Naval Parade called to mind the Great White Fleet. Even more impressive, the number of ships made available to a city parade surpassed those sent on a global diplomatic mission. This alone implies that the Hudson-Fulton Celebration of 1909 was much more than a city celebration or even a state commemoration. The Hudson-Fulton Celebration was a chance to debut New York City to the world. Moreover, this celebration afforded an opportunity to the United States to create an even greater show of military strength. Since this naval display was within American dominion, it would not appear overly aggressive. Yet, certainly the message the Unites States conveyed was clear: The United States Navy is disciplined, technologically advanced, and powerful—do not test our diplomatic relationship.
The Naval Parade itself was divided into ten American squadrons, interspersed with the foreign navies. These ten squadrons were merchant ships, steamboats, steam yachts, motorboats, tugboats, sailing boats, police and municipal boats, patrol boats, scout boats, and escort boats.
The escort squadron, as its very name implies, escorted the piece de resistance: replications of Henry Hudson’s Half Moon and Robert Fulton’s Clermont.

The Hudson-Fulton Celebration Commission initially contemplated constructing the replication of the Half Moon. However, the Commission was contacted by a Dutch diplomat, Johkheer R. de Marees van Swindereen, who informed them of Holland’s wish to contribute to the celebration by creating and presenting the replication of the Half Moon. On April 11th 1908, the Netherlands Hudson-Fulton Commission was formed.

This Dutch committee included several diplomats and even consulted the Queen of Holland. ^[x] A committee spanning two countries for a single celebration truly generated goodwill between the nations and fostered an American fondness for the Dutch.
Several challenges surfaced during construction of the Half Moon. The most obvious concern was the lack of a model. No drawings or designs remained of the original Half Moon. However, details were preserved in Henry Hudson’s journals. Finally, the Netherlands Hudson-Fulton Commission decided to base their design on a sister ship to the Half Moon, the Hope. (The Dutch East India Company circa 1600 had built both ships.) ^[xi]

The replica was built at the Royal Shipyards in Amsterdam. To further re-create the Half Moon, the replication was built with oak timber that had been submerged in water for over a century. Every effort was made to create a replication as like the original as possible. The Half Moon was ornately decorated, painted with green, yellow, and red ornaments and outfitted with the flag of Amsterdam. The replica of the Half Moon was 58.5 feet long and cost the Dutch government $40,000. ^[xii]

Another challenge was shipping the Half Moon to the New York City Harbor. The replica was placed on board the Holland-America Line steamship, the Soestdyk, which launched from Amsterdam on April 15, 1909. The Half Moon arrived in New York on July 22nd and was anchored at 110th Street on October 11th before it was moved to join the Clermont in Staten Island. ^[xiii]

The Hudson-Fulton Commission also replicated the Clermont, Robert Fulton’s steamship. Like the Half Moon, the Clermont had no designs or drawings from which to create an accurate representation. The architects commissioned by the Naval Parade Committee were unable to use designs for steamboats of the day, since the Clermont had an entirely new design. Moreover, the existing descriptions of the Clermont were of the later, modified version. ^[xiv]

However, the Hudson-Fulton Commission was determined to create a precise replication, to celebrate “steam navigation.” Finally, the naval architects discovered the designs and dimensions for Fulton’s Clermont in a patent application. The replication followed the design of the original Clermont, building a steamboat that was one hundred and fifty feet long, thirteen feet wide, and seven feet deep. The new Clermont was built by the Staten Island Shipbuilding Company at Staten Island’s Mariners Harbor.^[xv]

On the morning of Saturday, September 25th, at 10:30 A.M., the escort squadron surrounded the Half Moon and the Clermont at Mariners Harbor and proceeded to act as the replicas honor guard. The ships paraded along the Staten Island shore and, then, paraded along the Bay Ridge shore of Brooklyn, before heading into the New York City Harbor.

Adding to the excitement, the Half Moon and the Clermont were crewed by men dressed in period costumes. There was even an actor who portrayed Henry Hudson, while a descendant portrayed Robert Fulton. The attention to historical detail did, however, cause a few problems. As the ships sailed into the New York City harbor, the sailors on the Half Moon, unaccustomed to such a ship design, lost control of the sails and ploughed into the Clermont. No one was injured nor were the boats damaged. Thus, the Naval Parade continued as planned.

The Half Moon and the Clermont, with the escort squadron, paraded up the Hudson River, past the forming squadrons. The parade began at 1:15 P.M. and ended at 4 P.M. The ships paraded up the Hudson River, as far as 175th Street before turning and parading as far down as 44th Street. The ships with chief foreign diplomats and officials, led by the Half Moon and the Clermont, returned to the main staging point at 110th Street and Riverside Drive for a formal reception. ^[xvi]

The Naval Parade on the evening of September 25 began promptly at 8 P.M. and evoked a far different kind of grandeur than the parade of the afternoon.  From 44th Street to 222nd Street, fifty-seven warships aligned themselves in the Hudson River, for approximately ten miles. All of these ships were “covered with electric lights the equivalent of twenty-six million candles.”^[xvii] This spectacle lasted until midnight. The onlookers were greatly taken aback by such a beautiful display of illumination.
The great Inflexible, the British warship that has been the real heroine of the show, made the most beautiful spectacle as she lay outlined in the river. Between her masts glittered in electric lights a splendid jeweled crown.”^[xviii]

Clearly, the spectators had never seen anything quite like it before. This moment dramatically marked the dawn of widespread electricity. No city, no country had ever attempted such an expensive and visually appealing feat. The illuminations of the nighttime Naval Parade displayed the United States as a center of innovation and invention, at the forefront of technology.

Again, the significance of the nighttime Naval Parade should not be lost on the modern sensibility. In choosing to utilize the international war fleet to display the largest and most impressive illuminations, the Hudson-Fulton Commission was fostering a sense of international cooperation and goodwill. Nevertheless, the United States was once again diplomatically exhibiting its wealth and technological prowess in comparison to that of the foreign nations present.

The Military Parade took place on Thursday, September 30 1909. Over 25,000 soldiers marched in the parade, with an unprecedented number of foreign soldiers on American soil.

The parade began promptly at 1P.M. and ended at 3 P.M. The parade route followed was the same as that of the Historical and Carnival Parades. The Military Parade proceeded from Central Park West and 110th Street, continuing along Central Park West until 59th Street, where the parade then moved down Fifth Avenue, ending at Washington Square Park.

Leading the six-mile long parade of military personnel was Grand Marshall Charles F. Roe, who proceeded on a black charger and was decorated with copious amounts of gold lace.^[xix] The well-organized parade was ordered into nine divisions.

There were seven hundred British troops, soldiers and sailors alike, bearing the British flag and attired in traditional uniforms. The soldiers were dressed in red jackets and carried rifles, cutlasses, and bayonets. The sailors wore straw hats with black chinstraps and blue jackets. It was noted that the cheers for the British troops were especially enthusiastic, no doubt reflecting the firm Anglo-American alliance.^[xx]

The German infantry was dressed in white and blue caps and tan leggings. They, too, bore a huge banner emblazoned with the Kaiser’s crest. France sent one thousand men to participate in the Military Parade, dressed in the traditional blue and red jackets. While there were only twenty-five Dutch soldiers participating in the parade, it was noted that a Henry Hudson impersonator marched at the head of the Dutch troops.^[xxi] All other nations that had sent representatives to the Naval Parade were represented in the Military Parade. Every single nation was accompanied by its own artillery bands, playing its national anthems and traditional songs as the troops marched through the street of Manhattan.

While no civic organizations were allowed to march in the Military Parade, members of the U.S. Army, Navy, and National Guard participated, as did West Point cadets and veterans. It was noted that the greatest enthusiasm was heard in the cheering for the West Point cadets. Over two million spectators lined the streets of Manhattan to watch the Military Parade. There was wholehearted cheering and clapping for the soldiers of every nation. ^[xxii]

More so than the Naval Parade, the Military Parade fostered a sense of international unity. There was no sense of competition amongst nations or of measuring each other’s strengths and weaknesses. The Military Parade was merely a celebration of the service of the soldiers and the sailors, akin to our modern Veterans’ Day. The foreign soldiers were dressed in traditional uniforms, carrying their national flags or traditional weapons—not showcasing new technology. The artillery bands were playing national anthems, not songs of war. The Military Parade celebrated national identity and national pride in, perhaps, the most culturally diverse city of the time.

The American troops far outnumbered the foreign troops. The Americans soldiers ended the parade, marching behind the foreign contingents. One could argue that the placement of the United States military was a reminder to the spectators, not to the participants, of the power and grandeur of the United States. The Military Parade communicated to the on-lookers pride in cultural identity but, more significantly, the subsuming grandeur of national pride and patriotism.  Thus, the Naval Parade sought to educate the world, while the Military Parade sought to educate New Yorkers.

The Naval Parade and the Military Parade balanced each other, creating a counterpoint, a foil to the other. The Naval Parade sought to remind the world of the might of the Great White Fleet, by exhibiting the entire technologically advanced Atlantic Fleet. Doing so called to mind the United States’ supremacy in the Western Hemisphere. Meanwhile, the presence of South American countries reminded other powers of the Monroe Doctrine and American determination to retain economic control in those republics. Still, however, the Naval Parade was a peacetime display that was all the more impressive in its orchestration of international squadrons. The inclusion of international ships made the celebration of Hudson-Fulton a world affair and, therefore, a hopeful sign of unity and world peace. The Military Parade, more simply than the Naval Parade, sought to promote international cooperation, as thousands of soldiers from dozens of nations marched together through the streets of Manhattan. It was a celebration of cultural identity and military service, not a celebration or heralding of war. Moreover, the Military Parade allowed New York City, a city of immigrants, to revel in its various cultural identities while maintaining its American patriotism and national pride.

The Naval Parade and the Military Parade were immense and required significant international goodwill and cooperation. Both parades strove to promote unity and each was wildly popular and enthusiastically received. The Naval and the Military Parades each sought to display aspects of America to the world. Each capitalized on the friendship and goodwill generated through the world cruise of the Great White Fleet.

Endnotes