During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, New York City gradually developed into a cosmopolis. A cosmopolis is defined as a world city made up of people from various cultures and countries.^[1] Foreign ideas trickled down throughout society and led to the development of New York’s Bohemians, a group of people dedicated to the arts and literature that became the driving force behind the flourishing of music and arts within the city. From the discussions and exchange of ideas in restaurants, to the shops of Broadway, and into the theater, New York City certainly bears all the marks of a world city. Its unique cosmopolitan culture has developed from a rich blend of foreign influences and domestic innovations.

Broadway

Within the city itself, there is Broadway:

“No thoroughfare in the country so completely represents its wealth, its enterprise, its fluctuations, and its progress. Broadway is always being built, but it is never finished.”^[2]

 Broadway was the heart of cosmopolitan New York. Its bustling, busy crowd consisted of people from all over the world and all walks of life. Just like the constant flow of people coming and leaving its hotels, bazaars, music halls and gambling halls, Broadway itself was constantly changing.

Cultures, merchandise and fashion from all over the world could be found here, always up to date, always new and fresh. “A walk through Broadway is like a voyage round the Globe…Paris, and London…will come to you…open your purse and all your desires shall be gratified.”^[3] Broadway seemed to be the crossroads of the world, rich in culture, food, poetry, music and theater. Yet its cosmopolitan culture went hand in hand with wealth and luxury, as the best of all cultures were offered at exorbitant prices. Only those shops making great profits were able to remain on Broadway; the coming and leaving of shops is likened to a type of fiscal Darwinism. Those unable to bring in enough revenue were quickly forced out of business and replaced by an even more luxurious and elaborate store.

But Broadway could not be cosmopolitan if it were simply composed of varied merchandise and people wealthy enough to indulge in them. Philosophers came to Broadway as “stimulant for thought and food for feeling”.^[2] The people who walk the streets of Broadway each day are of all different ranks and classes, yet they are brought together by the cosmopolitan culture that is Broadway, and is representative of the city as a whole. At any one time, one can expect to see a variety of people walking along Broadway, from the wealthy to the homeless, priests, poets, veterans, courtesans, criminals or tourists. New York City, and Broadway in particular, was viewed by not a few as the center of the world, through which most people will pass through at some point in their lives^[2].

The Bohemians

The Bohemians became an integral part of New York’s culture, especially in the fields of journalism and the music and arts. The term itself developed in Paris in the nineteenth century, to refer to “literary and artistic people, who were as clever as careless; who lived in to-day and despited to-morrow; who preferred the pleasure and the triumph of the hour to the ease of prosperity and the assurance of abiding fame.”^[4] In New York, the term was adopted to incorporate journalists and newspaper writers, who were often not well off nor known to be especially practical. By the late nineteenth century, the term took on a decidedly negative connotation, referring to a man “who would borrow the last dollar of his best friend, never intending to repay it.”^[3]

The journalists and newspaper writers of New York City hardly fit this description, yet it was the view held at the time. Journalists were often just as honest as any other profession, and were usually young men full of new ideas and opinions who wished to “give tone and color” to the public press.^[3] Fifteen to twenty journalists in particular are identified as the first, or original, Bohemians of New York, for their intellect and innovative methods and opinions. It was often argued in the defense of the Bohemians that the negative view of them was due to their being before their time, despite their noble efforts to “increase the area of Thought, the breadth of Charity, the depth of Love.”^[3] It is their depictions of life within the city that contributed to New York City’s development into a cosmopolis; the inspiration taken from foreign restaurants and culture were all reflected within the writings of these journalists.

Later on, the term Bohemian became more generalized to incorporate many artistic types: poets, writers, artists, painters, sculptors and the like. The Bohemian life of New York is defined as the “life of the wandering nomads of literature, art, and journalism.”^[5] Similar to the philosophers in Broadway, creative minds would gather together at various restaurants throughout New York City. Eating outside of home was common practice in Manhattan.

Manhattan’s long, narrow shape forced most workers to travel a fair distance to work, requiring them to eat at least one meal away from home each day. Bringing lunch to work was not “popular” in Manhattan. Thus most workers bought lunch from restaurants near their workplaces. Many restaurants in Manhattan relied solely on these workers for their revenue. During the late nineteenth century, there was an estimated 10,000 restaurants for all classes on the island of Manhattan, of all varieties. Smith and McNell’s, for example, probably fed more than any other restaurant in the world, with an average of 13,000 customers daily. 

New York’s restaurants were all of high quality, partly due to fierce competition that forced each restaurant to go out of its way to appeal to possible diners.

“Even the cheaper restaurants were forced to make the most lavish expenditure in order to maintain prestige and patronage. Artistic decorations, expensive cutlery, and glassware, and exquisite china are now characteristics of not a few restaurants where the price of the most expensive dish on the bill of fare rarely exceeds twenty-five cents.”^[6]

The competition for many of these places was French restaurants, where food was well cooked and tastefully served. Despite low expectations from its competitors, French restaurants were surprisingly popular, perhaps due to their simple elegance and neatness, which American restaurants lacked. Many other foreign restaurants from various cultures became popular as well. Dining out became just another leisure activity, and restaurants became a popular place to socialize. For Bohemians, itwas in foreign restaurants that they congregated in search for aesthetic inspiration.

“All that New York has to offer in the way of Bohemian life is to be found in the various foreign restaurants, where the attraction consists largely in the unique surroundings, the absence of formality in dress and manners, and the reasonable price at which dinners are served.”^[7]

It was over dinner in foreign restaurants, usually decorated to reflect its respective culture, that poets, painters, writers, and all those responsible for the birth of New York City’s music and arts, gathered to share ideas, reflect on topics and search for inspiration for future works of art. Thus, restaurants became intertwined with the Bohemian lifestyle as the birthplace of the city’s arts and culture, which was a conglomerate of all the cultures and ethnicities which composed New York City. Thus, restaurants and journalists were very important in boosting New York City into a cosmopolis, which is defined as a diverse city composed of many cultures from around the world.

The Theaters

Theater was a popular leisure activity for New Yorkers and tourists alike, and is truly reflective of New York’s cosmopolitan status. With anywhere from 50,000 to 100,000 strangers visiting New York each day at the time, viewers from all over the world would come to see what New York’s culture had to offer. And the importance of New York is reflected in its favor among artistes, whose successes were tied closely to their ability to develop a “metropolitan reputation.”^[8] Indicative of New York City’s strong sense of culture and importance within the nation, it was only when an artist had produced a play recognized in the city that he could succeed in the provinces. The city was the heart of the country’s culture, and thus a cosmopolitan city; its culture was a product of all its component nationalities.

“The country is always anxious to know the character and the extent of the reception in New York.”¹¹

Theater was so popular in New York, among city dwellers and tourists alike, that all of the lyric and dramatic businesses in the city thrived, totaling roughly sixty at the time. Theatergoers spent an estimated $5,000,000 a year on theater.

There was always a variety of activities for entertainment; Barnum’s Museums was the center of attraction for those from rural areas, and showcased stuffed beasts, wax figures and the like. The Museum was later burned to the ground, as was common during that time due to tightly packed spaces and poor fire-prevention methods. Similarly, there were dime museums, where entrance could be bought for a dime in order to see “freaks of nature,” such as people with morbidly fascinating genetic diseases.

A cosmopolis is, by definition, a variety, whether it is of cultures or people. Within New York City, there was stratification between the poor and the rich. This can be seen in the various activities found in the city and the differing qualities and price available for each. In terms of theater, The Academy was an opera house made for refined tastes and in stark contrast to Barnum’s Museums, that was both graceful and elegant. Operas tend to be an acquired taste, but they were overwhelmingly popular in New York most likely due to fashion; it was simply popular at the time to attend an opera, and anywhere from one-third to one-half of those who attended would go despite having no interest in the music at all. Pike’s Opera House was another popular theater at the time, thought to be the “handsomest theater in the world.”¹¹ Its interior was brilliantly and richly decorated, comparable to the Grand Opera at Paris and paid for by Samuel N. Pike out of his own pocket, for the large sum of $1,000,000. The investment turned out to be especially fruitful, as it became a popular spot for tourists and locals to visit.

The Street Vendors

Despite the vast amount of shops of every kind imaginable, there are still numerous street vendors to be found stationed throughout New York City. They are considered the “Bohemians of trade;” they do not advertise or use complicated maneuvers.^[9] It is through them that the news of the city and the world are spread to the city’s residents. With this daily update on information, residents become more closely tied to global ongoings and its position within it as a world city.

“They plant themselves on their instincts…and the World comes round to them every twenty-four hours.”¹³

The most conspicuous of these street venders are the news dealers, who sell all the newspapers and journals published in the city which might have some general interest. At this time, newspapers were the New Yorker’s way of connecting with the world, reading about foreign events and culture and obtaining general information of the times.

“Newspapers are an American necessity… A true American can dispense with his breakfast and dinner, or regular sleep, but not without his newspaper…Then he is armed with the latest intelligence; has his opinions, his prejudices, his sympathies; is prepared for the strife of the day.”¹²

The dealer cunningly positions his newspapers so that the most sensationalist titles are the ones which are most likely to catch one’s eye. There are so many varieties that each buyer’s personality is reflected in the newspaper that he chooses to buy, whether it is the World, Herald, Nation, the Day’s Doings with its cheap sensations or the Police Gazette containing its collection of revolting crimes.

Newspapers are the foundation of the New Yorker’s culture, as many read and agree with the issues taken up in the papers. Whether it is a critique of the latest play or a commentary on another country, the newspaper connects New Yorkers to each other and the rest of the world.

The Five Points

The Five Points is a notorious part of New York City that has continually been the target of government plans for improvement. The Five Points refers to the intersection of Worth, Park and Baxter streets, very close to Broadway. Along with the high points of New York City culture, the Five Points was internationally recognized; it was referred to as St. Giles in London and tourists would often ask to see it before they went on to visit Fifth avenue or dined in luxurious restaurants. The Five Points is certainly the other half of the city; one that many of the city’s residents would like to avoid.

“Going there, we are brought face to face with the sternest and most revolting facts of civilization, and completed to admit, much as we may wish it otherwise, that education and advancement can never be more than partial.”^[10]

Harsh as the excerpt is, it reflects the split in New York at the time. Despite Broadway and Fifth Avenue in close proximity, there is very little interaction between the two halves of society; both continue about their lives in willful ignorance of the other. Nonetheless, the two represent the stratification between the rich and the poor. Although the rich are often viewed as superior to the poor, both halves are equally important in the development of a cohesive culture in the city. There was certainly high fashion, luxurious goods and upscale foreign restaurants which made New York City what it was at the time. But there was also the city’s massive growth and industry, which contributed greatly to the city’s rise as a cosmopolis and metropolis. And from this growth resulted poverty and deplorable conditions under which the lower class lived.

Unlike the marbled shops of Broadway, Five Points is lined with worn-down tenements, old furniture and old clothes, and filthy streets filled with children. “The offspring of vice is prolific as the offspring of poverty, and both are there.”¹³ The cold tone indicates the view that each half held of the other; there was no desire to help or alleviate the situation of the unfortunate; rather their existence was seen as a strain upon society.

Yet even in these conditions, there are traces of New York’s cosmopolitan aspects. Germans, Italians, Africans; all can be found here. Many have come in hopes of a better life and many opportunities, only to fall on hard times and end up in Five Points or other similar places. It was not only the wealthy who immigrated to New York City in order to become a part of its culture; various ethnicities can be found in the lower classes as well. Thus, both halves of the city are indicative of a cosmopolitan culture consisting of various ethnicities.

The Mission

The Five Points Mission, very appropriately named, is a plain, brick building residing on Park Street, and exceedingly out of place compared to the poorly kept buildings surrounding it. The Mission has two offices, several classrooms and a chapel, all very simply decorated. It was established by Methodists, led by Reverend L.M. Pease, in 1850 as the pioneer of reform in that area. The establishment of The Mission was initially viewed as a fruitless attempt by both philanthropists and reformers, but in a few months, astonishing results were achieved.

The Mission serves as a school, funded by the government and aided purely by volunteers, in which students of higher intelligence than most charitable institutions, come to learn. All children are of foreign heritage, predominantly Irish and German. The children attend mass twice a week and learn skills such as making shoes or clothing, in order to prepare them to better care for themselves as adults.

As undesirable as Five Points and other slums may be, there are still a mark of the extent to which foreign influence has become intertwined with New York City. From high society and entertainment on Broadway and Fifth Avenue, down to run-down tenements in Five Points and the Bowery, foreigners have become a part of New York City’s culture and contributed to it. From luxurious restaurants and fashionable clothing to show-makers and tenement dwellers, New York City has become a cosmopolitan city at the center of the world.

New York City as a World City: A Comparison with Paris and London

Although New York City was certainly at the forefront of a cosmopolitan culture and metropolitan society, it certainly was not alone. Its desire to become predominant in both aspects was likely fueled by rivalries between Paris and London, to which it was often being compared. At the beginning of the twentieth century, although growing rapidly, New York City is still far behind London in terms of population. Similarly, its cultural history is hardly as extensive as that of Paris. In the early 1900’s, these two cities rival New York City in both population and culture.

Paris and London

Paris had a population of over two million just prior to the beginning of the twentieth century.^[11] Unlike New York City, which is far younger, Paris has had a long and turbulent history throughout the various French revolutions. While New York City has the Hudson, Paris has the Seine, which is spanned by twenty five bridges and flanked by various buildings of historical significance. 

As a result of its turbulent past, Paris was the largest fortified city in the world at the time. Yet despite its historical turbulence, Paris increased in both size and grandeur. New palaces, houses, quays, and bridges were built, and fortifications were constructed to include the Tuileries.A new wall crossed what would soon be Place de la Concorde to the Madeleine, and its course from that point to the Seine would later bring world-wide fame.

Its churches also include an aspect often neglected or of lesser importance in New York City; architectural orders. The churches are created in a variety of styles, including Romanesque, Gothic, Flamboyant, Renaissance, Italian, and the Classic.^[12]

Similar to Paris, London has an extensive history that New York lacks. Destroyed by flame, the plague, and famine, London has survived and continued the flourish as the well into the twentieth century. At the turn of the century, London is the largest metropolis in the world, numbering 6.1 million people in 1900, almost double the population of New York City at the time. Although London’s growth rate is not as high as that of New York City, it continues to remain the most populous city for many years to come.

Also similar to Paris, there is an emphasis on the churches of London, which carry great historical significance as well as notable architectural construction. The emphasis on churches, shown by their elaborate architectural orders, pediments, and other forms of decoration, indicate the close ties with religion that London and Paris have developed throughout their turbulent histories. New York City, having been settled for far less time, and being composed of many different cultures, lacks ties to religion that are as strong as the ones exhibited by both Paris and London.

While the architectural orders of religious structures in Paris and London are of great pride to the city, there are no such parallels in New York City. The churches themselves lack the rich history that comes with London and Paris, and New York City has never adopted any of the classical forms of architecture as fully as London or Paris.

Thus, New York City’s most notable factor is its rich culture which comes from the varied backgrounds and heritages of its inhabitants, whereas London and Paris inherit much of their culture from their collective history as a city.