[These notes were originally posted on America Online] 


EARLY CHURCH HISTORY

A Study of the History of the Early Church
in the First Six Centuries

Notes from a course taught by
Dr. James B. North
Cincinnati Bible Seminary, Cincinnati, Ohio
Spring 1990


NOTE: The class notes are preceded by a general outline/table of contents.  Much more detailed notes follow this introductory section.  



OUTLINE

	I. First Century Context .....................................  6
		
		A. Christianity and Other Religions.
			1. Judaism.
			2. Mystery Religions.
			3. Philosophies.
			4. Gnosticism.
		B. Spread of Christianity.
		C. Organization of early Church.
		D. Relations with the Roman Empire.
			1. Religio licita/illicita.
			2. Nero (54-68).
			3. Domitian (81-96).

    II. Imperial Persecution (96-202) ............................. 10

		A. Nerva (96-98).
		B. Trajan (98-117).
		C. Hadrian (117-138).
		D. Antonius Pius (138-160).
			1. Polycarp.
			2. The Apologists.
				a. Justin Martyr (100-165).
				b. Athenagoras (176).
				c. Epistle to Diognetus.
		E. Marcus Aurelius (160-180).
			1. Thundering Legion.
			2. End of the Pax Romana.
		F. Commodus (180-192).
		G. Septimus Severus (193-211).

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   III. Bishop, Creed, and Canon .................................. 15

		A. Office of Bishop.
			1. Ignatius (30-107/115).
			2. Montanism.
			3. Irenaeus (130-200).
			4. Presbyters.
		B. Creed.
		C. Canon.
			1. Marcion (144).
			2. Muratorian Fragment (170).
			3. Origen.
				a. homologoumena.
				b. antilegomena.

    IV. Early Third Century: Heresy and Order ..................... 19

		A. Alexandria.
			1. Philo (20 BC--50 AD).
			2. Pantaenus (?-190).
			3. Clement (150-215).
			4. Origen (184-254).
		B. The West.
			1. Easter controversies.
			2. Monarchians--Sabellius (215 ?).
			3. Hippolytus (170-236).
			4. Callistus (217-222).
			5. Tertullian (160-220).

	V. Later Persecution ......................................... 23

		A. Decius (249-251).
			1. Libellus.
			2. Cyprian (?-258).
		B. Valerian (253-260).
		C. Diocletian (284-305).
			1. Tetrarchy formed.
			2. Persecution in 303.
		D. Galerius (305-311).

    VI. Constantine ............................................... 27

		A. Political Background.
			1. Rise to become Augustus.
			2. Disputes and wars.
			3. Constantine's victory in the West.
			4. Constantine and the Church.
			5. Battles with Licinius.
		B. Was Constantine a Christian?
			1. Favors granted to the Church.
			2. Developing Church structure.

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		C. Donatism.
			1. Background in Africa.
			2. Attempts at resolution.

   VII. Arianism and Nicaea ....................................... 33

		A. Arius (250-336).
			1. Background.
			2. Arianism.

		B. Council of Nicaea.
			1. Called by Constantine.
			2. Nicene Creed.
			3. Canons.

		C. Later Troubles.
			1. Dissatisfaction.
			2. Athanasius (296-373).
				a. Eustathius of Antioch (324-330).
				b. Marcellus of Ancyra (? - 374).

  VIII. From Constantine to Theodosius ............................ 37

		A. Division of the Empire.
			1. Political reunification.
			2. Religious problems.
				a. "Dedication" Council.
				b.  Council of Sardica.

		B. Julian (361-363).
			1. Politics.
			2. Cappadocian theologians.

		C. Jovian (363-364).

		D. Valentinian (364-375).
			1. Valens (364-378).
			2. Theodosius (379-395).

		E. Gratian (375-383).

		F. Valentinian II (383-391).

		G. Council of Constantinople.
			1. Arianism.
			2. Macedonianism.
			3. Apollinarianism.

		H. Ambrose.
			1. Election.
			2. Justina and chapel.
			3. Symmachus

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			4. Theodosius.
				a. Monks at Callinicum
				b. Mob at Thessalonica.

    IX. Monasticism ............................................... 42

		A. Impulses of Monasticism.
			1. Scripture.
			2. Greek philosophy.
			3. White martyrdom.
			4. Purism.

		B. Monasticism in the East.
			1. Anthony (251-356).
				a. Anchorites.
				b. Laura.
			2. Pachomius (290-346).
				a. Coenobitic monasticism.
				b. Vow of obedience.
			3. Basil (330-379).
				a. Rule of Basil.
				b. Extreme severities.
			4. Simeon Stylites (390-459).

		C. Monasticism in the West.
			1. Jerome (342-420).
			2. Martin of Tours (335-397).
			3. Honoratus (350-429).
			4. Benedict of Nursia (480-550).
			5. Cassiodorus (485-580).

	X. Augustine and the Fifth Century ........................... 47

		A. Augustine (354-430).
			1. Political division and the sack of Rome.
			2. Augustine's early life.
			3. Pelagius (? - 419).
			4. City of God.

		B. Roman Claims.

		C. Theological controversy.
			1. Nestorianism.
			2. Monophysitism.

    XI. Celtic Christianity ....................................... 53

		A. Beginnings.
			1. Celts.
			2. Christianity in Gaul.
			3. Christianity in Britain.
			4. Ninian (360-432)

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			5. Patrick (389-461).

		B. Political Pressures.
			1. Roman needs.
			2. Angles, Saxons, and Jutes.
			3. Gildas (500-570) and Ambrosius Aurelianus.

		C. Form of Christianity.
			1. Different cultural base.
			2. Celtic monasticism.
			3. Penitentials.
			4. Easter.
			5. Love of books--Columban (521-597).
			6. Columbanus (550-615).

  XII. Christianity and the German Tribes ......................... 57

		A. Early German activity.
			1. Work of Ulfilas.
			2. Visigoths--Alaric, Aistulf.
			3. Vandals--Gaiseric (428-477).
			4. Burgundians--Gundobad (480-516).
			5. Franks--Clovis (481-511).

		B. Italy.
			1. Emperor Honorius (395-423).
			2. Aetius and the Huns.
			3. Ricimer (456-472).
			4. Odovacer (476-493).

		C. East.
			1. Zeno (474-491).
			2. Acacian schism (482-519).
			3. Ostrogoths--Theodoric (475-526).

 XIII. Justinian and the Byzantine Empire ......................... 60

		A. Eastern politics.
			1. Zeno.
			2. Anastasius I (491-518).
			3. Justin I (518-527).

		B. Justinian (527-565).
			1. End of Acacian schism.
			2. Theodora (500-547).
			3. Reconquest of the West.
			4. Caesaropapism.
			5. Monophysitism.
			6. Fifth Ecumenical Council.



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  XIV. Gregory the Great .......................................... 65

		A. Empire Affairs.
			1. Justin II (565-578).
			2. Lombards.

		B. Gregory the Great and His Times.
			1. Early life.
			2. Gregory's career as a diplomat.
			3. Gregory's career as a churchman.
			4. Ways Gregory exercised leadership.
			5. Gregory the Great's diverse roles.

		C. Transition to the Middle Ages.






EARLY CHURCH HISTORY NOTES


  I. FIRST CENTURY CONTEXT.

	A. Christianity and Other Religions.
	 
		1. Judaism:
			a. Judaism of 1st century was not monolithic.
				1) Variety of sects w/i 1st century Judaism.
				2) Essenes: 
					a) Basic Info.: Monastic, ascetic, arose ca. 
					   150 B.C. & lasted about 200 yrs. Never left
					   Palestine.  Josephus first mention.  Qumran
					   a center.  Est. 4,000 members.  Dualistic
					   theology; Teacher of Righteousness.
					b) Alleged Relation to Christianity: John in 
					   Wilderness of Judea; Jesus tempted in 
					   Wilderness--near Qumran.  Is Essene Judaism 
					   the backdrop of Christianity?  Does Jesus 
					   followmodel of Teacher of Righteousness?  					   Consensus is there are similarities but not 
					   a direct relationship.
			b. Other characteristics of 1st century Judaism:
				1) Since captivity Judaism steered clear of
				   idolatry.  
				2) Diaspora Judaism with synagogues was a recent
				   development.
				3) Strong anti-Semitism (Jews clannish, monotheism).
				4) Some attracted to Judaism and monotheism.

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		2. Mystery Religions.
			a. Widespread in Empire but associated with specific
			   regions:
				1) Phrygia ... Attis, Cybele.
				2) Egypt ..... Serapis, Isis, Osiris.
				3) Persia .... Mithraism.
			b. Items in Common:
				1) Secret initiation ceremony (cf. Masonic orders).
				2) Promise of salvation through particular deity 
				   (immortality).
				3) Promised the initiate contact ("personal
				   relationship") with deity.
				4) Focus on young god (m/f) who dies and is brought 
				   back to life, bringing great blessings.
				5) Cult of Magna Mater--Taurobolium ceremony: Bull 
				   is sacrificed on grate over pit.  In pit priest 
				   or initiate "baptized" in blood, thus partaking 
				   of strength & vitality of deity.  Phrase, "Reborn 			   	   from eternity" popular terminology.
			c. Relationship to early Christianity.
				1) In 1920s many noticed similarities--Christianity 
				   original or borrow from mystery religions?
				2) Since WW II known that most evidence for mystery 
				   religions is post-Christian.
					a) 1st evidence for Taurobolium ceremony is 
					   not until A.D. 143.
					b) First citation of "Reborn from Eternity"
					   phrase is not until 4th century.
				3) Similarities suggest Mystery Religions borrowed
				   from Christianity.

		3. Philosophies.
			a. Platonism, Stoicism, Epicureanism, Atomism.
			b. Asked big questions--What is life and its meaning?
			c. Growing dissatisfaction with philosophy in classical
			   period (e.g. Lucretius).
				1) Pessimism; religious options not answering big 
				   questions.
				2) Seneca (4 B.C.--A.D. 65): Many obsessed with
				   death; pervasive air of despair.
			d. Many early X's spoke kindly of philosophy as
			   preparation for greater revelation of Christ.
	 
		4. Gnosticism.
			a. General information:
				1) Complex system; embryo state in 1st century.
				2) Recognizable only in X'n form--Gnostics thought
				   of themselves as only true X's.
				3) Major threat to 2nd century X'ty; nearly won out!
				4) Significant teachers: Valentinus, Basilides,
				   Marcion.

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			b. GNOSTIC THEOLOGY:  Dualistic; spiritual superior to
			   physical.  Hierarchy with emanations (aeons) between
			   God and Demiurge or lesser god who created world. 
			   People are combination of flesh and spirit.  Gnostic
			   theology an attempt to explain and deal with that
			   fact.  A-historical; purely speculative.  Jesus came
			   with special gnosis which will free man from body
			   and help him ascend to God.  Salvation by knowledge,
			   not atonement.  Jesus less savior than a teacher. 
			   Some Gnostics thought early church corrupted pure
			   teaching of Jesus--others thought apostles themselves
			   corrupted it.
			c. Gnostics and the Incarnation.
				1) Docetism--Jesus only seemed to be human (1 John
				   seems--no pun intended--to address this heresy).
				2) Cerinthus (1st century Gnostic):
					a) Jesus human with Spirit inhabiting him at
					   his baptism.
					b) Spirit left before death on cross (instead
					   of "My God, my God ..."-"My power, my power
					   why have you forsaken me?"
					c) John and Cerinthus at baths (Papias via
					   Eusebius).
			d. Belief that flesh is evil led to 2 tendencies in
			   Gnosticism:
				1) Ascetic--body must be conquered.
				2) Libertine--body evil; indulge; "it doesn't
				   `matter'!" (pun)

	B. Spread of Christianity.
	 
		1. The "fullness of times" (Gal. 4:4).
			a. Unified empire--no customs/passport barriers.
			b. Latin official language; Greek language of commerce.
			c. Jewish concentrations in every major city.
			d. General dissatisfaction with philosophy.

		2. Major Cities--Christianity prob. there by mid-century
		   (Ephesus, Alexandria, Antioch, Rome).

		3. Apostolic travels (acc. to tradition):
			a. Thomas to India.
			b. James to Spain (buried Campostello?; San Diego = St.
			   James).
			c. James, Paul, Joseph of Arimathea to Great Britain.
			d. Peter to Rome.
			e. Note 1 Cor. 9:5--"Right to lead wife as Peter & other
			   apostles."
				1) Some married.
				2) They traveled.


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			f. Adolph Harnack in MISSION AND EXPANSION OF EARLY
			   CHURCH says X'ty pops up everywhere but with no
			   documented origins.  Result of "small people"--
			   businessmen, soldiers, etc.
	 
		4. Christianity an urban phenomenon.
			a. Urban for most part with exception of Palestine.
			b. Paul went to cities and their synagogues for an
			   audience.
			c. Urban vs. Rural populations:
				1) Urban populations more receptive to change.
				2) Rural population held longer to paganism; paganus
				   --word itself means "rural dweller!"  Paganism
				   was religion of countryside.  May have been due
				   to Christianity conquering the cities.

	C. Organization of the Early Church.
	 
		1. General Officers: Authority throughout church (cf. Gal. 1).
			a. Apostles.
			b. Prophets.
			c. Evangelists (itinerant).
			d. Teachers (itinerant--cf. 3 John's mention of
			   teachers).
	 
		2. Local Officers: Authority only in local church (cf. Phil.
		   1:1).
			a. Bishops/Elders: Same office, always plural, used
			   interchangeably in NT (Acts 20; 1 Pt. 5; 1 Tim.  3).
			b. Deacons: Servants of the church.
	 
		3. Problem: General officers died out fairly soon--what then?

	D. Relations with the Empire.
	 
		1. Christianity first viewed as sect within Judaism.
			a. Roman tolerance--accepted religions of new regions
			   conquered.
			b. Religio licita--a "licensed religion."
				1) Judaism accepted because of antiquity.
				2) Concern about resistance movements cloaked in
				   religion.
				3) New religions unlicensed because of this concern.
	 
		2. Nero (54-68).
			a. Great Fire of Rome (64).
				1) Set by Nero as means of urban renewal.
				2) Feared receiving blame; Christians became
				   scapegoats.
			b. Neronian Persecution.
				1) Evidently limited to Rome.
				2) Paul and Peter probably killed by Nero

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				3) If Paul imprisoned twice it probably straddled
				   Great Fire.
				4) Evidence exists that 1st & 2nd century remains
				   are buried under St. Peter's!
			c. Nero committed suicide in 68--persecution ended.
	 
		3. Domitian (81-96).
			a. Began persecution of Christians in 91--Not limited to
			   Rome.
			b. Believed to be personal vendetta because of family
			   history with Jews.
			c. Flavius Clemens, D.'s cousin, condemned to death w/
			   official charge of "atheism" = Christian?  Flavius
			   Domitilla, Clemens' wife, exiled to island in Tiber
			   River.
	 
	 
 II. IMPERIAL PERSECUTION (96-202).

	A. Introduction: Five Good Emperors.
		
		1. Nerva (96-98).
		2. Trajan (98-117).
		3. Hadrian (117-138).
		4. Antionius Pius (138-160).
		5. Marcus Aurelius (160-180).

	B. NERVA (96-98).
		
		1. Domitian was assassinated in 96 with no heir.
			a. 3 ways of choosing an emperor:
				1) Inheritance--genealogical descent.
				2) Army intervention (e.g. Vespasian).
				3) Chosen by Senate.
			b. Nerva chosen by Senate--died in 98 of natural causes.
				1) Had no children.
				2) Adopted a son (Trajan) who had proved himself
				   capable.
		
		2. Established an important precedent:
			a. Trajan adopts Hadrian.
			b. Hadrian adopts Antonius Pius.
			c. Antonius Pius adopts Marcus Aurelius.

	C. TRAJAN (98-117).
		
		1. Five good emperors maintain a general policy of 
		   intoleration.
			a. Not an organized policy.
			b. Depended largely on local factors (cf. Pliny to
			   Trajan).

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		2. Pliny's letter to Trajan.
			a. Mere fact of being a Christian punishable.
			b. Christians NOT to be sought out.

	D. HADRIAN (117-138).
	 
		1. Hadrian's letter to Minucius Fundanus (ca. 124).
			a. Proceed vs. X's if accusers present specific charges.
			b. Slandered w/o proof--charges dismissed, informant
			   punished.
	 
		2. Justin Martyr uses this document in his apology.
			a. Christians punished if they break law.
			b. Justin: Christians do not break the law.
			c. Persecution invalid (Justin overlooks fact that merely
			   being a Christian is against the law).

	E. ANTONIUS PIUS (138-160).
	 
		1. Same policy toward Christians continues (2 episodes):
			a. Alexandria (ca. 155)--Persecution instigated by Jews. 
			   A-P wished to intervene but influential Jews too
			   powerful.
				1) Willing to save X's--not seen as threat.
				2) Shows X's as being small and politically
				   insignificant so as not to merit A-P's protection
				   and political fall-out.
			b. Polycarp of Smyrna.
				1) Local persecution instigated by Jews.
				2) Polycarp first hid in city, removed to country,
				   found.
				3) Police Chief attempts to get Polycarp to offer
				   sacrifices--he refuses. 
				4) In amphitheater the Proconsul (also a friend) is
				   unable to get Polycarp to recant.
				5) Famous quote: "Eighty and six years have I served
				   my king and he has never done me wrong.  How can
				   I blaspheme him who saved me?"
				6) Burned at stake--acc. to local legend flames did
				   not touch him but heat baked his body.
	 
		2. Era of the Apologists (ca. 120-220).
			a. Introduction:
				1) Early Apologists--Quadratus (ca. 124); Aristides.
				2) Aims of Apologists:
					a) Show Christians innocent of moral slanders.
					b) Prove Christians innocent of political
					   subversion.
					c) Prove Christianity morally and culturally
					   superior.


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			b. Justin Martyr (ca. 100-165).
				1) Biography:
					a) Born in Samaria (Shechem) of pagan parents
					   and became a
					   professional student and philosopher.
					b) Seaside introduction to Christianity.
					c) First apology (155) addressed to Antonius
					   Pius.
					d) Second apology protested the execution of
					   Christians.
					e) In 165 Justin attended a hearing vs. X's &
					   intervened; Argued with judge-ordered to do
					   sac.--refused--killed.
				2) First Apology.
					a) Rational argument that Romans had nothing 
					   to lose with Christianity.
					b) Stressed superior lives of Christians.
					c) Mentioned unusual charges and dispelled 					   then (untrue; actually what Roman gods had 
					   done!)
					d) Showed validity of X'ty because of OT
					   prophecy.
					e) Paganism itself a pale imitation of
					   X'ty--Plato and others got their good stuff
				 	   from Moses.
					f) Concludes apology by re-asserting that
					   rumors are false and then describes 2nd
					   century worship practices: (Prayers, kiss 
					   of peace [men-men/ women-women], baptism as
					   initiation into fellowship, LS, Scripture
					   reading, Sermon by "president" [one
					   presiding--probably elders].)
			c. Athenagorus (176).
				1) Addressed Marcus Aurelius.
				2) Answered charges of immorality and atheism.
				3) Christianity a respectable philosophy and highly
				   moral.
				4) Finds it ironic that X's accused of things Roman
				   gods did.
				5) Only purpose of sex is to have children:
					a) Picked up by Augustine?
					b) Became standard Roman Catholic position.
				6) X's against murder and says abortion is murder.
				7) Charge of sexual promiscuity groundless as X's
				   believe in only 1 marriage (regardless of death,
				   etc.!)
			d. Epistle to Diognetus.
				1) No idea who Diognetus is or who wrote it or when
				   written.
				2) Short and written in excellent Greek.
				3) Allegory of Christians as "soul of Roman world"
				   (ch. 6).

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	F. MARCUS AURELIUS (160-180).
		
		1. Church liked both Antonius Pius and Marcus Aurelius.
			a. Both men excellent statesmen--M-A a world-class Stoic.
			b. Ironic as both men intolerant of Christianity.
		
		2. The Thundering Legion incident (Christian version).
			a. M-A leading a campaign north of Danube in 172.
			b. Enemy massing--looked bad; troops pooped due to
			   drought.
			c. Christians in ranks prayed--huge rainstorm came--
			   thunderbolt drove the enemy away.
			d. Eusebius (Book 5, ch. 5) and Tertullian note this.
			e. Other info. says 12th legion called Thundering Legion
			   in time of Augustus.
			f. Suetonius, M-A refer to this but not prayers of
			   Christians.
		
		3. End of PAX ROMANA.
			a. Empire at peace for about 200 yrs. (30 BC to 170 AD).
				1) No significant outside threat (some internal
				   revolts).
				2) Germanic tribes from north & Parthians/Persians
				   from east.
				3) Romans started asking, "Why?"
					a) Gods angry because of Christians & their
					   growing influence.
					b) Pagan revival began--favor of gods must be
					   won back.
					c) Empire forced to worship the old gods.
			b. Onset of Empire-wide persecution.
				1) Lyon and Vienne persecution (Rhone Valley, 170s).
					a) Pothenus, bishop of Lyon killed in 177.
					b) Irenaeus appointed as his replacement.
					c) Blandina: 13 yr. old slave girl tortured &
					   thrown to wild beasts who refused to eat 
					   her(too bland! sorry, bad joke); placed in 
					   hot metal chair--survived; hung in net and 
					   gored by wild bull who killed her (3rd time 
					   a charm!).
				2) M-A could not understand Christian refusal to
				   acknowledge old gods.
					a) Roman conclusion: Christians really are
					   subversive!
					b) ILLUST. WW II situation with J.W.'s refusal
					   to salute flag & say pledge of allegiance. 					   Most Americans unable to understand why
					   J.W.'s would not do these simple things. 
					   Must be subversive.  War-time hysteria. 
					   Even Supreme Court ruled vs. J.W.'s; 1946
					   reversed itself.

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				3) M-A, an enlightened emperor, was in favor of
				   extermination of Christians for subversiveness.
					a) Emperors concerned about stability/unity 
					   persecutors.
					b) Better emperors tended to persecute; lesser
					   ones tended to let it ride!
					c) Church liked MA even though he was harshest
					   persecutor to date; hated his son who was
					   incompetent.

	G. COMMODUS (180-192).
	 
		1. Life and times:
			a. 19 yrs. old when emperor; fancied himself an athlete.
			b. Incompetent, bribed Praetorian Guard, scorned Senate.
			c. Economy of empire goes into tail-spin during his
			   reign.
			d. Crisis reached in 192--treasury empty--solution was to
			   kill wealthy Patricians and confiscate wealth.
			e. On 1/1/193 he was to reinstate office of consul with
			   himself clad in gladiator suit; strangled nite before
			   by wife, mistress, & wrestling partner.
			   
		2. Mistress Marcia and Callistus.
			a. Commodus' mistress is a Christian!
			b. Intervenes on behalf of many X's in state-owned mines
			   in Sardinia copper & lead mines.
			c. Drafted lists of names with emperor's name underneath.
			d. Callistus:  A slave who embezzled money from owner and
			   could not repay.  On run.  Broke up synagogue
			   services, arrested, sentenced for execution.  Master
			   intervened--sent Sardinia.  Name not on Marcia's list
			   but added at Sardinia.  Goes back to Rome where he
			   becomes bishop of Rome (217-222). 

	H. SEPTIMUS SEVERUS (193-211).
	 
		1. Life and times:
			a. Commodus had no son; chaos after his death.
			b. S-S, a general, marched on Rome and became emperor.
			c. Attitude toward Christianity:  Not opposed to X'ty at
			   first.  At turn of century his feelings change. 
			   Empire still going down the tubes.  Needs more men in
			   army just as church is teaching clergy celibacy. 
			   Christians also raising questions about military
			   service at this time.
	 
		2. Edict of Septimus Severus (202).
			a. Christians prohibited from proselytizing (Jews also).
			b. Christians ordered to worship the gods.
			c. Empire-wide, particularly harsh in N. Africa and Egypt
			   where many X'n radicals live

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			d. In Alexandria Leonidas, father of Origen, is killed.
	 
		3. Christianity at end of 2nd century:
			a. Quite strong despite persecution.
			b. Tertullian: "The blood of the martyrs is the seed of
			   the church" is reflective of this entire period.


III. BISHOP, CREED, AND CANON.

	A. Office of Bishop.
	 
		1. Ignatius of Antioch (30 ?--107/115).
			a. Life and times:
				1) Status in Antioch: Bishop not "one" of elders but
				   "the" bishop of Antioch.  Acc. to Origen he is
				   2nd bishop of Antioch, following Peter.  Eusebius
				   says there is another one after Peter and that
				   Ignatius is the 3rd.
				2) Became bishop about 69 A.D.
					a) Life overlaps apostles--yet becomes THE
				 	   bishop!
					b) May have been in Antioch when Paul visits!
			b. Arrest and martyrdom.
				1) Arrested in Antioch while Trajan is emperor.
				2) Literally walked to Rome.
				3) On the way wrote 7 letters and visited Smyrna.
					a) Wrote Ephesus, Rome, Magnesia, Trallis from
					   Smyrna.
					b) Wrote Smyrna, Polycarp, Philadelphia from
					   Troas.
				4) Roman Christians asked not to intervene in his
				   execution.
			c. Unity of the church a big concern to Ignatius.
				1) Church remains united by loyalty to bishop
				   (singular).
				2) Makes consistent distinction between bishop &
				   elders (pl.)
				3) Each church has 1 bishop over plurality of
				   elders.
				4) Unity of church personified in person of bishop
				   who takes place of God as authority figure;
				   elders like apostles.
					a) Trallis: Obey bishop as Jesus Christ.
					b) Magnesia: As Lord did nothing w/o father; 
					   so people should do nothing w/o bishop.
					c) Only valid LS done by bishop or his
					   appointee.
					d) No baptisms or love feasts w/o bishop's
					   supervision.
					e) Bishops of various places listed in letters
					   --is this a standard practice at this time

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					f) No bishop identified at Rome--do they have
					   it yet?
			d. Monarchial Episcopate (1-ruling bishop).
				1) Ignatius explains this as if accepted practice.
				2) Why did this develop?
					a) Government by committee inefficient in
					   troubled times.
					b) One man, with accepted authority, responds
					   quickly.
				3) M-E will become uniform by at least 200 A.D.
					a) First evidence in Rome is about 135-140.
					b) Ignatius silent about bishop of Rome in his
					   letter.
					c) Was James "the bishop" of church in
					   Jerusalem? (Acts 15).
				4) Was M-E accepted practice in Ignatius' day?
				   	a) Some say yes--mentioned only casually as
					   if it is a normal practice.
					b) Some say no-Ignatius mentions it too often.
					   He is pushing an innovation.
				5) No reference in Ignatius to "Apostolic
				   Succession."
					a) Would really have bolstered his case--not a
					   doctrine.
					b) Earliest reference is Irenaeus (ca. 180).
					c) 4 bishoprics with best "apostolic
					   succession" list--Antioch, Jerusalem,
					   Alexandria, & Rome (only 1 in W.).
		
		2. Spread of Montanism (threat of false teaching).
			a. The rise of Montanus.
				1) Converted ca. 156 in Phrygia and began that same
				   day to speak in tongues and prophesy. 
				2) Claimed paraclete speaking through him.
				3) Priscilla and Maximilla, disciples, did same.
					a) Phrygia long a seed-bed of ecstatic
					   religions.
					b) Many mystery religions began in Phrygia.
			b. Why did Montanism spread?
				1) Church becoming stale--reaction to
				   institutionalization.
				2) Resistance to rise of monarchial episcopate.
				3) Rigorist brand of X'ty appealed to many.
	 
		3. Irenaeus (130-200).
			a. Spent boyhood in Smyrna; knew Polycarp who knew John;
			   went to Rome then Lyon where he became bishop.
			b. AGAINST HERESIES--written against Gnostics.
				1) Responds to Gnostic claim of pure Christianity.
				2) Irenaeus says true faith in churches apostles
				   established; observe what they teach.
				3) Lists apostolic succession of Rome

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				4) "Every church must be in harmony with this church
				   (Rome) because of its outstanding pre-eminence."
				5) Appeals to fact that Rome is microcosm of entire
				   Christian world.  If new teaching is not accepted
				   universally it will be thrown out when it reaches
				   Rome.  Rome is least common denominator.  Bottom
				   Line: Gnosticism false because it doesn't agree
				   with Rome!
	
	B. Development of Creeds (Purpose: distinguish orthodoxy from
	   heresy).

		1. Early Roman Baptismal Creed (150).
			a. Interrogative creed; triune immersion after each
			   response.
			b. Baptism done with person kneeling and being leaned
			   forward.
			c. Problem: Didn't say enough as Gnostics could agree
			   with it.
	 
		2. Old Roman Creed (200).
			a. Key phrases: "Born of virgin Mary" ... "Crucified and
			   buried" ... "Rose from the dead" ... "Resurrection of
			   the body."
			b. Gnostics would have had a real problem with this
			   creed.
	 
		3. Apostles' Creed (650).
			a. Traced in present form to Spain, ca. 650.
			b. Tradition says Apostles chanted this at Jesus'
			   ascension, being led by Peter.
			c. Called Apostles' because it contains apostolic
			   teaching. 

	C. Canon.

		1. Marcion (144).
			a. Biography: Native of Sinope, Pontus.  Allegedly guilty
			   of "gross immorality" and cast out by "Bishop father." 	   		   Arrived in Rome in 140 with some wealth.  Became in-
			   fluential in Rome.  Excommunicated in 144 because of
			   his theology.  Contributions over past 4 yrs. were
			   returned.
			b. Marcion sets out to prove his correctness.
				1) Est. first known "canon."
					a) Only Luke (minus first 2 chapters).
					b) 10 letters from Paul (except Pastorals and
					   Hebrews).
				2) Roman church and others drew up their list in
				   response.
	 

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		2. Muratorian Fragment (170).
			a. Discovered by Muratori in 18th century (?).
			b. Content: Begins by saying, "And the third gospel is
			   Luke and fourth is John."  Lists most of rest of NT
			   (except Hebrews, James, 1-2 Peter).  Includes the
			   Revelation of Peter" in add. to Revelation.
	 
		3. Irenaeus.
			a. Content: "4 gospels, no more and no less ... must be
			   4 because there are 4 winds and 4 corners of the
			   earth."  May indicate universal acceptance in I.'s day
			   of 4 gospels if he could offer such simple logic.
			b. Irenaeus was the first to represent Gospel writers
			   symbolically:
				1) Man .... Matthew.
				2) Eagle .. Mark.    -----\
				3) Ox ..... Luke.          John & Mark switched in
				4) Lion ... John.    -----/      Middle Ages.
		
		4. Origen (ca. 225).
			a. Origen took survey of churches and made 2 lists.
				1) Homologomena--"same word about"--universal
				   acceptance.  (4 gospels, Acts, 13 of Paul's, 
				   1 John, 1 Pet., Rev.)
				2) Antilegomena--disputed, spoken against, no
				   agreement.  (Heb., 2 Pet., 2-3 John., James,
				   Jude, Epis. of Barn., Shep. of Hermas, Didache,
				   Gospel of Hebrews.)
			b. Nicaea (325) did not address Canon issue.
				1) 3rd Council of Carthage (397) first to come up
				   with 27.
				2) Athanasius of Alex. has same 27 books.

		5. General Observations:
			a. By 200 A.D. there was general agreement on Canon.
				1) Four gospels and Acts.
				2) 11 of Paul's letters (Philemon & 2 Tim. still
				   questioned).
				3) Hebrews generally accepted as were 1 John, 1
				   Peter & Rev.
			b. What makes a book worthy of canonicity?
				1) Apostolic authorship or association:
					a) Mark ..... connected with Peter.
					b) Luke ..... associated with Paul.
					c) James & Jude written by brothers of Jesus.
				2) Is it compatible with other recognized apostolic
				   books? (James, Jude, Hebrews).
			c. Church and Canon.
				1) Catholic view:
					a) Church decides canon.
					b) Church interprets Bible.
					c) Church takes precedence over Bible

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				2) Protestant view:
					a) Quality of writings "rise to the top."
					b) Church acknowledges what is already there.


IV. EARLY THIRD CENTURY: HERESY AND ORDER.

	<A major issue as church grew--how to relate to culture.>

	A. The East/Alexandria.
		
		1. Alexandria itself:
			a. Exemplified the transfer of Greek culture in the
			   Mediterranean basin.
			b. Christianity most likely came to Alex. quite early.
			c. Perhaps the outstanding intellectual center of world.
		
		2. Philo (20 B.C.--50 A.D.).
			a. Blended Judaism and Greek philosophy.
			b. Use of allegory (cf. circumcision not taken
			   literally).
				1) Found affinities in Greek philosophy from OT.
				2) Had a developed "logos" teaching.
		
		3. Pantaenus (?--190).
			a. Stoic philosopher orig. from Sicily; convert to
			   Christianity.
			b. Set up first organized theological school in
			   Alexandria (ca. 180).
			c. Converted a young Clement of Alexandria.

		4. Clement of Alexandria (150-215).
			a. Born to pagan parents; came from Athens.
			b. Converted between 180-190 in Pantaenus' school.
			c. Took over school in 190 and headed it until his death.
			d. What Philo did for Judaism, Clement did for
			   Christianity.
				1) Blended X'ty and Philosophy.
				2) Philosophy taking a beating in orthodoxy's battle
				   with Gnosticism which had deep philosophical
				   roots.
				3) Clement called church back to philosophy to
				   rescue church from unappealing "fundamentalist"
				   slant.
			e. Clement's approach: Establishes that he is NOT a
			   Gnostic--X'ty a matter of faith not knowledge. 
			   "Simple believer is saved no matter how ignorant he
			   is, but mature X'n will want to go beyond "elementary
			   teachings."  This is the "Christian Gnostic." 
			   Christianity is the "true philosophy."  Understood
			   risk of loss of identity as bridge to culture.  This

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			   raises the question: When you begin to express X'ty in
			   philosophical terms do you compromise the faith?
	 
		5. Origen (184-254).
			a. Biography: 2nd generation X'n; Leonidas, his father,
			   killed in Septimus Severus persecution in 202;
			   Educated well in philosophy; student of Clement of
			   Alex.; took over Clement's school when Clement left
			   town during a persecution; continued Clement's love
			   affair w/ philosophy; Profuse writer--Hexapla,
			   commentaries on 50 of 66 books.
			b. Origen was most influential in his theology.
				1) First Principles--1st systematic of X'n theology.
				2) Heavy use of allegory; promoted use of deductive
				   logic.
				3) Every text has 3 meanings (like man):
					a) Body ...... literal ...... least important.
					b) Soul ...... moral ........ more important.
					c) Spirit .... allegorical .. most important.
				4) Most problematic topic--relations within the
				   Godhead.
					a) Father and son "homousios."
					b) Origen father of this thought later to be
					   declared orthodox at Nicaea. 
					c) BUT, Origen has subordinationist language
					   also--does not allow prayer to Christ--"the
					   2nd God." Father of strand of thought later
					   known as Arianism/Subordinationist.
				5) Influential theory of atonement (Patristic
				   theory).
					a) Ransom negotiated with the devil.
					b) Satan didn't realize he couldn't hold 
					   Jesus.
					c) God knew this but willing to have Satan
					   deceived.  
					d) Predominant theory until Anselm's
					   satisfaction theory.

	B. The West.

		1. Easter Controversies.
			a. When should Easter be celebrated?  Two approaches:
				1) Asia Minor: Followed Jewish calendar and Pass-
				   over on Nisan 14.  Lunar cycle--Easter "moves
				   around"; Adherents known as Quartodecimanians,
				   or "The Fourteenthers."
				2) Other Formulas: Not tied to Jewish reckoning.
				   As early as A.D. 120 in Rome there are different
				   celebrations.  In 150 Polycarp of Smyrna came to
				   Rome to discuss this with bishop of Rome. 
				   "Agreed to disagree."  By end of 2nd century 
				   Bishop Victor of Rome became intolerant and ex-
				   communicated the Quartos.  First time a bisho

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				   excommunicates someone outside his jurisdiction.
				   Polycrates of Ephesus protested.  Irenaeus of 
				   Lyons supported Smyrnaens, even after his stated
				   support of Rome on other matters.
			b. Continues to be an issue until Nicaea (325).
				1) Decision: 1st Sunday after 1st full moon after
				   vernal equinox.
				2) Abandoned after decision of Nicaea, but church
				   returned to it later.

		2. Monarchians--Sabellius (d. 215?).
			a. Two types of Monarchians:
				1) Adoptionists: Focused on Peter at Pentecost:
				   "God has made his Lord and Christ."  Adoption
				   of man Jesus to be Lord and Christ.
				2) Modalists: Identified with Sabellius.  One God
				   who has 3 modes of appearing.  Sabellius spoke in
				   Greek tragedy terms of one God using "3 masks." 
				   A.K.A. Patripassianism--the Father suffers on the
				   cross.
			b. Orthodox Christianity later condemned these forms of
			   Monarchianism.

		3. Hippolytus (170-236) & Callistus: Relation of Church and
		   State to Culture.
			a. Hippolytus' views on Godhead:
				1) In 210s Hippolytus wrote against Monarchianism.
				2) Went in other direction with Di-Theism (2 Gods);
				   later condemned as heresy. 
			b. This issue became a personal matter between Hippolytus
			   and Callistus.
				1) Callistus elected bishop of Rome in 217-222;
				   Hippolytus was outraged!
				2) Hippolytus was member of established family;
				   Callistus was a former slave.
				3) Hippolytus identified with old contacts from
				   Asia Minor--He was last Western theologian to
				   write in Greek when not his native language.
			c. Callistus represented a new Western element in
			   Christianity, centered in Rome.
				1) Advocated a non-rigorist approach to murderers, 
				   adulterers, and apostates (Christians only--not
				   an issue for pagans becoming a Christian).
				2) Developed and nurtured contacts with gov't and
				   civic associations.
			d. Hippolytus becomes a schismatic (222-235) by forming
			   his own church.
				1) In 235 a new persecution breaks out.
				2) Hippolytus and Pontianus, bishop of Rome 
				   (230-235) both arrested and sent to Sardinia.
				3) Hippolytus and Callistus (and followers) work
				   out their differences; Hippolytus accepted back

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				   into church, although Hippolytus dies in the
				   Sardinian mines.  
				4) Hippolytus was the most significant theologian
				   in the West in the Third Century.

		4. Tertullian (160-220).
			a. North African who wrote in Latin because of the Roman
			   colonial influence.  Latin began to replace Greek as
			   Westernization of church continues.
			b. First definite reference to Christianity in Carthage
			   is A.D. 180.
			c. Biographical: Tertullian was the son of a centurion.
			   Became a lawyer in Rome.  In 195 he observed some
			   Christian martyrs which sparked his interest in the
			   faith.  Converted, returned to Carthage.
			d. Tertullian and Montanism:
				1) By 207 Tertullian is apparently a Montanist.
				2) Identified with the rigors of Montanism, but not
				   the charismatic element.
				3) Montanism had anti-philosophical bent: "What has
				   Athens to do with Jerusalem?"
				4) Strong apocalyptic flavor--world filled w/ doom.
			e. Tertullian's later life:
				1) In 211 Tertullian officially joins Montanism and
				   is hereafter regarded as schismatic.
				2) Condemned Callistus' edict of non-rigorism.
				3) Died in 220 of natural causes, but totally out of
				   harmony with the Western Church. 
				4) Ironic as he became greatly influential in
				   Western Christianity.
			f. Tertullian's Against Heretics (A.D. 200): Heretics
			   have no right to interpret Scripture as this belongs
			   to the Church.  Truth handed down by Christ and
			   Apostles to the Church.
			g. Tertullian and Trinitarian issue:
				1) Insisted Father is God.  Son is God  Spirit is
				   God.  Yet not 3 gods, but one!
				2) Formula: "One substance in three persons"--this
				   has been traditionally interpreted as this: "The
				   substance cannot be divided and the persons 
				   cannot be confused."

		5. Contrasts: East & West in Early Third Century.
			a. East: focused on speculative issues; West:
			   organizational issues.
			b. Both wrestling with issue of "How wide is the Church?"
			   and whether to be Rigorist or Non-Rigorist.
			c. Both Tertullian and Origen die excommunicated!
				1) Tertullian shapes Western theology.
				2) Origen contributes to both orthodoxy & heresy.
				3) Both highly revered by Church in later years; not
				   regarded as heretics; not named saints either

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V. LATER PERSECUTION.

	A. Period of relative peace during first half of Third Century.

		1. Alexander Severus (222-235).
			a. Emperor--not a Christian, but sympathetic.
			b. Had a private chapel with busts of gods--included
			   a bust of Jesus.

		2. Maximus the Thracian (235-238).
			a. Brief persecution erupts when he becomes emperor.
			b. Specifically aimed against Christian leaders--both
			   Hippolytus and Pontianus captured in this one.
			c. Apparently limited to Rome and Palestine.

		3. Philip the Arabian (244-249).
			a. Some feel he was a Christian--Eusebius did.  Likely
			   he was not.
			b. He did carry on a correspondence with Origen.

	B. DECIUS (249-251).
		
		1. One of the better emperors of Roman empire; point of
		   interest--it seemed the better rulers were less tolerant of
		   Christianity. 
		2. Decius decreed in 250 that all citizens must publicly
		   worship the state gods; Jews the only ones exempted; 		   Christians were not exempted.
			a. Those sacrificing were given a libellus--certificate.
			b. People were required to carry this document.
			c. Flourishing black market trade in bogus libelli.
			d. Many Christians bought these counterfeits which 
			   raised the issue of apostasy.

		3. Many Christians "lapse" and sacrifice to the gods.
			a. Rationale of some:
				1) False gods don't exist--not really worshipping.
				2) Simply a civic act--being a good citizen.
			b. Many Christians hid out in the countryside.
				1) Ethical question--being deceitful in non-
				   profession of faith?
				2) Were leaders putting life before ministry?
				3) Many Christians urged their leaders to hide.

		4. Decius is killed in 251 fighting Goths along Danube River.
			a. 1st emperor killed by enemies of empire within the
			   borders of the empire.
			b. This ends the most thorough persecution to date--it
			   was brief but intense.
			c. Decius' successors not interested in continuing it.
			d. Origen was captured in Palestine and tortured, but 
			   not killed.  However, he died in 254 largely from

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			   wounds suffered.
			e. Those like Origen who confess their faith and live
			   to tell about it were called Confessors, in contrast
			   to those who "lapsed."

	C. Lapsarian Controversy.
	
		1. Lapsed Christians wanted to re-activate their membership
		   after persecution.
			a. Callistus had laxed requirements earlier, forgiving
			   murderers, adulterers, and apostates.
			b. Three responses to this issue:
				1) Hard-liners: No forgiveness--only remedy is
				   martyrdom.
				2) Soft-liners: Lapsed particularly need the
				   forgiveness of the church.
				3) Moderates: Acceptance, but only after period of
				   trial penance (2-3 years).

		2. Penance issue.
			a. Only public offenses ("reproach on church") required
			   a priest or bishop to absolve sins.
			b. Developed into Roman Catholic penitential system.
			c. Confessors in a unique position to mediate God's
			   grace.
				1) Earned credibility by virtue of experience.
				2) As a whole, Confessors were soft-liners!
				3) Confessors undermine hard-liners development
				   of penitential system.

		3. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage (248-258).
			a. Cyprian was a well-educated rhetorician in the second
			   most important city in the West--Carthage.
			b. Cyprian a Moderate--he was not sympathetic to the
			   soft-liners, although plenty of hard-liners thought
			   Cyprian was soft.
				1) Same issue being fought over in Rome; complicated
				   by the death of Fabian, bishop in Rome.
				2) After the persecution Rome elects a bishop--two
				   candidates: Cornelius (Moderate) and Novatian
				   (Hard-liner).
				3) Cornelius won a close election; Novatian
				   supporters protest and appeal to Cyprian to
				   mediate.  Cyprian determined Cornelius was duly-
				   elected bishop.
				4) Novatian protested decision--schism developed;
				   Novatians created a schism in Carthage,
				   appointing a hard-line bishop.
			c. Novatian schism dies out and many seek to return--a
			   problem arises with those evangelized by Novatians
			   and baptized in Novatian Church.  Orthodox Church
			   asked--"Is baptism of a schismatic church valid?

- 25 -

			   "Do they need to be rebaptized?"
				1) Cyprian says NO--not properly baptized.
				2) Stephen, bishop of Rome (254-257) disagrees with
				   Cyprian saying they should be treated as
				   transfers.
					a) Validity of sacraments does not depend on
					   morality & orthodoxy of administrator.
					b) Proper words and right intent all that is
					   needed for valid sacrament.
			d. In discussing the invalidity of Novatian baptism,
			   Cyprian began asking questions about church structure.
				1) Outside the bishop there are no valid baptisms
				   (cf. Ignatius' view).
				2) Cyprian slogan: "Extra ecclesiam nulla salus" =
				   "Outside the church there is no salvation."
				3) Cyprian defines "church" as people gathered
				   under their rightful bishop.
				4) Bottom line: Schismatics are not Christians.

	D. Valerian (253-260).

		1. Persecution of Christians: Valerian's reign peaceful at
		   first, but in 257 persecution began with a new twist.
			a. Wealth of Christians was now being confiscated. 
			b. Began with finance minister, Macrianus, himself a
			   member of one of the Egyptian mystery religions, who
			   was motivated by jealousy and finances.
			c. Church buildings exist though church is still illegal.
				1) Funerary societies often had buildings.
				2) Christians established legal funerary societies.
				3) Own cemetery & erect funeral chapel ("church").
				4) Many examples of this by mid 3rd century.

		2. Valerian edicts:
			a. First edict in 257.
				1) Prohibited Christians from worshipping or
				   gathering in cemeteries.
				2) Forced Christians to make sacrifices to gods.
			b. Second edict in 258.
				1) Ordered execution of clergy who had not
				   sacrificed to the gods.
				2) Allowed confiscation of Christian property.
				3) Cyprian was killed in this persecution (258).
			c. Valerian was captured and killed by Persians (260).

	E. Period of Relative Peace and Gradual Acceptance (260-303).
	
		1. Gallien (260-268).
			a. Did not continue his father's persecution.
			b. In 260 issued an edict authorizing Christian worship
			   and possession of cemeteries.

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			c. Legal acknowledgement of Christianity, but still short
			   of formal legalization of religion.

		2. Aurelian (270-275).
			a. At Antioch a problem developed when Paul of Samosata
			   was deposed as a schismatic.  He refused to leave and
			   turn over the church to his excommunicators.
			b. Christians in Antioch appealed to Aurelian; Paul of
			   Samosata forcibly removed by emperor's troops.
				1) Emperor intervenes in internal affairs of an
				   illegal religion!
				2) Aurelian policy: "Christian church buildings
				   belong to those who are in communion with the
				   bishop of Rome."

		3. Roman Empire was reaching a crisis point economically,
		   politically, and militarily.
			a. Gaul and Syria separated from the empire.
			b. Many upstart military emperors began to spring up.
			c. Diocletian in 284 stalled decline.  Rome officially
			   fell in 476, but would have fell ca. 290 if not for
			   Diocletian.

	F. Diocletian (284-305).

		1. Reformed the Roman Empire.
			a. Reformed government, military, and financing system.
			b. Reached conclusion that empire was too large for one
			   man to govern effectively.
				1) Maximian made co-ruler with Diocletian in 286;
				   became Augustae.
				2) Diocletian took East--deemed most important (made
			 	   Nicomedia capital of east); Maximian given Gaul
				   and the west.
			c. Four prefectures formed:
				1) Gaul .......... Constantius.
				2) Italy ......... Maximian.
				3) Illyricum ..... Galerius.
				4) East .......... Diocletian.

		2. Years of 284-303 of Diocletian's reign relatively peaceful
		   for Christians; 303--persecution erupts.
			a. 303--persecution, apparently motivated by Galerius.
				1) His wife & mother-in-law are Christians.
				2) Lactantius suggests that in a sacrifice in 303
				   Galerius saw Christians "crossing themselves"
				   while intestines were being read.  This messed
				   up the reading ("bad vibrations").
				3) 303--Diocletian "fired" Christians in military
				   and the government.
			b. Between Feb. 303 and Feb. 304 there were a series of
			   four edicts

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				1) Against Christian worship--confiscated Christian
				   books and vessels; buildings destroyed; no per-
				   secution of people.
				2) Ordered arrest of all clergy.
				3) Ordered clergy to sacrifice to gods or die.
				4) Ordered all citizens to sacrifice to gods.
			c. In Nicomedia there was a church building directly
			   across the street from the palace.
				1) Had a steeple higher than any point on palace.
				2) Mysterious fire broke out in imperial kitchen.
				3) Severe persecution unleashed in that region.
			d. Persecutions varied in intensity and enforcement.
				1) Edicts covered whole empire but more rigorously
				   enforced in prefecture of the East and Illyricum.
					a) More Christians in East than West.
					b) East: 10-15% of population; West: 5-10%.
				2) Italy: enforced considerably less than in East.
				3) Gaul: 1st edict was enforced, the other 3 were
				   not (Constantius' 1st wife was a Christian).

		3. Persecution continued for some time.
			a. Diocletian retired in 305 (as does Maximian).
				1) Galerius and Constantius become Augustae.
				2) Severus (West) and Maximin (East) become
				   caesars.
				3) Maxentius in West and Constantine in East
				   passed over with tensions.
				4) In 306 Constantius became ill and calls
				   Constantine to his side in York, Britain.  He
				   dies & Constantine is acclaimed Augustus of West.
			b. Civil War erupts between various claimants to the
			   prefectures.
				1) Chaotic time, particularly in the West; per-
				   secution of Christians, particularly in the
				   East, continues.
				2) Even pagan society by this time deplored the
				   needless slaughter and social disruption; 
				   question policy of persecution.
			c. Spring 311--Galerius issues Edict of Toleration.
				1) Motivated by political & social necessity.
				2) Still despised Christians.
			d. Fall 311--Maximin (Augustus of East) begins per-
			   secution, but in Spring 312 issues his own edict
			   of toleration.


VI. CONSTANTINE.

	A. Biography: Born about 285 to Constantius (a high-ranking army
	   officer who would become an augustus of the West--prefecture of
	   Gaul) and Helena, a commoner and a Christian.  Constantius re-
	   married, but Constantine was not disowned as usually happened

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	   and was allowed to stay with his mother.  When Constantine was
	   ten years old he moved to Nicomedia and was schooled there.

	B. Rise to Power.

		1. Augustus of the West.
			a. In 305 Diocletian retired; Constantine was expected to
			   become one of the caesars, but was passed over.
			b. In 306 Constantius became sick and summoned
			   Constantine; Constantius dies and Constantine becomes
			   Augustus of the West.
			c. Married life:
				1) 1st wife--Minervina--one son; divorced her.
				2) 2nd wife--Fausta, daughter of Maximian--3 sons.
			d. By 311 Constantine is dominant in the West; Maxentius,
			   son of Maximian, heads the prefecture of Italy.
				1) Constantine was advised to be content.
				2) Constantine was not content--wanted it all!

		2. Emperor.
			a. In 312 Constantine takes his army to Italy. 
				1) Fights 4 battles with armies of Maxentius.
				2) Constantine's son cuts off Rome's grain supply
				   by sea.
			b. Summer 312--Constantine's famous vision.
				1) Sources:
					a) Lactantius and Eusebius.
					b) Lactantius uses only 31 words to record it;
					   If he was inventing it he would probably
				 	   needed more words. Likely passed on to him.
				2) Vision: At high noon Constantine saw a Chi Rho
				   symbol in sky and above it the words: "In this
				   sign conquer" (either in Greek or Latin).  Con-
				   stantine believed the God of the Christians would
				   guarantee his success if he would fight under the
				   Christian banner.  Chi Rho printed on soldiers'
				   shields.  Battle standard had Chi Rho symbol.
			c. Conquest of Rome:
				1) Maxentius holed up in Rome; his army is roughly
				   the size of Constantine's.
				2) Maxentius abusive of Roman citizens (tax/rape)
				   and is hated in Rome.
				3) Maxentius offers sacrifices; seers proclaim,
				   after looking at animal intestines, "The enemy of
				   Rome will be destroyed!"
				4) An over-confident & thrilled Maxentius goes out
				   to battle Constantine.
				5) Battle: Armies meet 5 miles out of Rome on bend
				   in the Tiber River.  Constantine forced
				   Maxentius' army into this bend--great slaughter. 
				   Maxentius escapes with survivors and heads for
				   Rome.  Constantine's cavalry heading for Rome vi

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				   another route.  Arrive at same time at Milvian
				   bridge.  Maxentius killed in this battle on
				   October 28, 312--Constantine is the only augustae
				   in the West out of 7 several years earlier!
				6) October 29, 312--Constantine enters Rome in
				   triumphal procession and is accepted by the
				   Senate.  For first time in history no pagan sac-
				   rifice is offered when new emperor takes throne!
				7) Constantine regards himself as Christian emperor.
					a) Suppresses emperor cult; presents Lateran
					   palace to bishop of Rome.
					b) Lateran palace becomes residence of the
					   bishop of Rome for next 1,000 years.  Next
					   to LP is Praetorian Guard barracks.  PG is
					   dissolved, barracks destroyed.  Land given
					   to bishop of Rome.  St. John Lateran built
					   here.  Becomes papal residence until the
					   14th century.
			d. Consolidating his position.
				1) In consolidating his position, Constantine sent
				   letters to Africa regarding the church.
					a) Church lands to be returned to churches.
					b) Bishop of Carthage appointed overseer of
					   relief funds for Africa.
					c) Clergy exempt from taxes.
				2) Constantine going out of his way to show favor to
				   the church.

		3. Constantine and Licinius.
			a. Licinius--another claimant in the East.
				1) Feb. 313--Constantine and Licinius meet in Milan
				   and agree to share empire as soon as Licinius
				   finishes conquering Maximian.
				2) Licinius marries Constantine's sister:
				   Constantia.
				3) They draft EDICT OF MILAN (313)--part of which
				   gives full religious freedom to ALL religions.
				4) Interesting phrase in edict: "So that by this
				   means, whatever divinity is enthroned in heaven
				   may be favorable to us."  This wording is
				   deliberately generic probably because Licinius is
				   a Sol Invictus worshipper.
			b. Licinius fights Maxentius on April 30, 313 at Plains
			   of Hadrianople.
				1) Licinius wins; Maxentius survives and escapes to
				   Asia Minor; Licinius pursues.
				2) Late Summer catches up with him in Syria;
				   Maxentius dies before battle is fought.
				3) Licinius supreme in East; kills all prospective
				   rivals including son & daughter of Maximin, son
				   of Gallerius, Gallerius' wife, daughter of
				   Diocletian, and Diocletian's wife

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			c. Battles with Licinius.
				1) Disputes: Jurisdictional disputes begin in
				   first yr. of co-rulership.  
					a) Boundary dispute in Balkans between E. & W.
					b) Tensions over Christian toleration-Licinius
					   is less tolerant.
					c) Until 321 Constantine & Licinius had been
					   naming 2 consuls to Rome;in 321 Constantine
					   names both!  In 322 Licinius names himself
					   and son consuls in the East.
				2) Persecution: Licinius adopts unofficial policy of
				   harassment against Christians.
					a) Churches closed b/c of poor ventilation.
					b) Men & women not permitted to worship
					   together to safeguard public morality.
					c) No males could instruct female catechumens.
					d) Christians prohibited from visiting 
					   prisons.
					e) Synods of bishops outlawed.
					f) No OFFICIAL persecution, but some young,
					   eager officials did kill some Christians
					   with Licinius' approval.
				3) Final Battle: In 323 the Goths invade Balkans;
				   Licinius is elsewhere--Constantine shoves Goths
				   back.
					a) Licinius becomes suspicious, thinking C. is
					   using Goth invasion as excuse to get his
				 	   army in the East to subdue Licinius. 
					b) 7-3-324--Battle at Hadrianople--C. wins; L.
					   escapes to Asia Minor & begins to mass
					   troops for another battle.
					c) Constantine pursues & on 9-18-324 there is
					   another big battle--Constantine wins again!
					d) Licinius allowed to live, but is killed in
					   late Fall when he continues to plot vs. C.
					e) Entire empire now under one ruler--first
					   time since 293.

	C. Was Constantine a Christian?

		1. Two positions:
			a. Jacob Burckhardt, The Age of Constantine, insists
			   Constantine was a political opportunist who used
			   Christianity for selfish purposes (consensus of 19th
			   century).
			b. This century the feeling is that Constantine was
			   genuine in his conversion.
				1) Christianity numbered about 10% of the empire:
					a) East (10-15%); West (5-10%).
					b) A politician would be unwise to join this
					   kind of minority for political purposes.
				2) In response Burckhardt cites general population's
				   disdain of persecution & were ready to tolerate

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				   In other words, toleration is one thing,
				   conversion is another.

		2. Favors granted to Christianity suggests Constantine was
		   genuinely a Christian.
			a. Exemption of taxes to clergy (e.g. declared exempt
			   from bachelor tax--priests were celibate).
			b. Clergy also had secular employment--declared exempt 
			   from taxes.
			c. As early as 314 Christian symbolism begins to appear
			   on coinage; by 323 all pagan symbols on coins extinct!
			d. In 313 bishop-tried cases granted recognized legal
			   authority.
			e. Churches allowed to inherit property.
			f. Constantine's children were educated as Christians.
			g. When the capital is moved to Byzantium (330) C. gives
			   church prime real estate to build churches.
			h. Eusebius tells of C.'s authorization of 50 Bibles to
			   be published, funded by empire treasury.  Codices
			   Sinaiticus and Vaticanus believed to be two of these.

		3. Two arguments against Constantine being a Christian.
			a. Sol Invictus: legalized by Aurelian about 275.  In 315
			   C. erected a major arch in Rome in favor of Aurelian's
			   rule.  On that arch C. is pictured standing next to
			   sun god.  (May be an attempt to pacify Licinius who is
			   Sol Invictus worshipper.)
				1) In 321 Sunday declared an official Roman holiday.
				2) Birthday of "unconquered sun" (Dec. 25) was made
				   a holiday by Aurelian in 270s.
				3) About the time of Constantine's death (337) this
				   date becomes associated with Christians.
				4) Most feel this is Christian syncretism--may just
				   be a "baptizing" of pagan elements and
				   observances lose pagan connotations.
			b. In Spring 337 Constantine develops a mortal illness.
				1) Constantine baptized (sprinkled) on his deathbed;
				   dies on 5-22-337.
				2) Some say Constantine not serious about being a
				   Christian and this late baptism proves it, but
				   delayed baptism a real trend at this time.
				3) Those who delay are those who have the most
				   confidence in what baptism procures.
			c. A Conclusion:  While Constantine was serious about his
			   commitment to Christianity, he also hoped Christianity
			   would help unify a divided empire.  Constantine was
			   shocked to learn that Christianity was divided!

		4. Church under Constantine.
			a. Christianity responded to this favorable treatment
			   with unprecedented growth.  Being a Christian becomes
			   a status symbol

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				1) Millions of people become Christians.
				2) In 325 approximately 10% of empire is Christian;
				   by 400 90% is!  This out of 50-75 million total!
			b. Tremendous strain is put on the church--results in a
			   rapidly developing hierarchy.
				1) Each of the 127 provinces had several large
				   cities; one is capital--usually the largest.
				2) Bishop in chief cities in the provinces naturally
				   looked to bishop in capital.
					a) Church in that city usually larger & more
					   influential.
					b) Metropolitan = Greek meaning "mother city."
				3) Authoritarian lines develop this way during the
				   4th century.
					a) One metropolitan/archbishop per province.
					b) Groups of provinces governed by five
					   patriarchs.
					c) Patriarchate must rest on an apostolic
					   founding.
					d) This whole schema fed into papal authority.
					e) Groupings:

	Patriarchate:		Region:				Apostolic basis:

	Alexandria ........	Egypt, Libya ............... John Mark
	Antioch ...........	Syria, Eastern Asia ........ Paul
					Minor
	Jerusalem .........     Jerusalem (honor ........... Apostles
					position; little power)  
	Constantinople ....     Western Asia Minor & ....... Fudged!
					Greece (replaced Ephesus)
	Rome ..............     Entire West ................ Peter

					f) Church structure mirrored secular 					   government  of the empire!

	D. Donatism.

		1. Background in Africa.
			a. Controversy in Carthage over who is rightful bishop;
			   began during Diocletian's persecution--confiscation
			   of sacred writings.
				1) Traditores--those who handed over sacred writings
				   or Word (= Jesus).
				2) Replay of lapsarian question--what to do with the
				   traditores?
			b. In 311 bishop of Carthage dies--who will replace him?
				1) Archdeacon Caecilian chosen.
				2) Numidia's bishop traditionally involved in the
				   consecration of the bishop of Carthage (it took
				   3 bishops to consecrate another bishop).
				3) Rivalry existed between Carthage and Numidia; i

- 33 -

				   311 the bishop of Numidia is left out; ethnic
				   slant to this also--Carthage = old Roman stock,
				   Numidia = native Berbers.
				4) Felix, one of the 3 consecrating bishops, is a
				   traditore.
				5) Numidia says a consecration by a traditore in-
				   validates; Numidia selects Majorinus who soon
				   dies; Donatus replaces him as bishop of Carthage.

		2. Attempts at resolution.
			a. In 312 when Constantine's men come to make bishop of
			   Carthage head of relief work, they come back to Rome
			   asking, "Which bishop?"
				1) Constantine called a council in Rome at Lateran
				   Palace of both Italian and Gallic bishops.
				2) Caecilian's election is confirmed.
				3) Donatus protests and demands another hearing.
				4) 314--Another council in Arles with just Gallic
				   bishops; Caecilian is again confirmed.
				5) Conclusion: Validity of sacraments does not
				   depend on the one administering them.
			b. Donatus still not satisfied.
				1) 316: Constantine sent soldiers to close Donatist
				   churches.
				2) 321: Constantine abandons forced unity approach.
				3) 347: Donatists join anti-Roman marauders--the
				   Circumcellians.

		3. Several layers to the Donatist controversy:
			a. Surface--validity of sacraments.
			b. Ethnic rivalries at work--Carthage vs. Numidia.
			c. Church structure issue--sectional or universal?
			d. Nationalistic element--replay of Punic Wars.
			e. City (Carthage) vs. Country (Numidia).

		4. Observation: The Donatist issue persists for another 350
		   years until Muslims over-run the area.  The Muslims are
		   able to do this because of disunity.


VII. ARIANISM AND NICAEA.

	A. Arius (250-336).

		1. Background:
			a. Originally from Libya; educated in Antioch by Lucian.
			b. Lucian developed the Antiochene school of
			   interpretation--historical/literal approach.
			c. Antiochene school emphasizes the historical Jesus;
			   tended to downplay allegorical interpretation.
			d. Lucian's Christology is subordinationist--Jesus is
			   less than God

- 34 -

			e. 311-312--Lucian is martyred in Nicomedia during the
			   Great Persecution.  His thinking became more credible
			   because of his martyrdom.

		2. The debate begins.
			a. Arius located in Alexandria, Egypt after his education
			   at the Baucalis church.
			b. In 313 Alexander becomes bishop of Alexandria after
			   Arius is appointed.
			c. Arius' preaching becomes controversial--in 318 a
			   council of 100 bishops called (from Egypt & Libya) and
			   Arius is excommunicated along with 5 other priests, 6
			   deacons, and 2 bishops (from Libya).
			d. Arius alerts the Antioch "alumni association" and the
			   debate thickens; Arius points to writings of Origen.

		3. QUOTE: "A heresy often starts out as the vehement
		   assertion of an authentic but partial aspect of revelation
		   which, developed unilaterally, soon becomes deformed and
		   compromises the balance of theology as a whole." (Jean
		   Danielou & Henri Marrou, The First Six Hundred Years, p.
		   250.)

	B. The Doctrine of Arianism.

		1. Arius concerned about Sabellianism ("3 masks").
			a. 318--Heard Alexander make a Sabellian comment--
			   "homousias."
			b. Arius attacks "homousias" and seeks to protect the
			   place of The Father but does so at expense of The Son.

		2. Nuts & Bolts of Arianism.
			a. Focused on two key texts:
				1) Prov. 8:22--"The Lord possessed (or formed) me in
				   the beginning of his way."
				2) John 14:28--"The Father is greater than I."
			b. Arius asserted the Father alone is eternal.
				1) If Jesus is created, then there was a point in
				   time when he did not exist.
				2) Thus, The Father alone is the true God.
				3) Son, however, is pre-eminent over all creation.
			c. Slogans of this period:
				1) "There was when he was not!"
				2) "There was not when he was not!"
				3) "Begotten, not made!"
				4) "Homousios" vs. "homoiousios" (homo = same;
				    homoi = similar).
			d. Different levels of this controversy:
				1) Theology is definitely at issue.
				2) Rivalry of Antioch and Alexandria.


- 35 -

		3. Later developments.
			a. Arius goes to Palestine and Asia Minor after his
			   excommunication.
				1) Local synods vindicate Arius' position.
				2) Eusebius of Nicomedia and Eusebius of Caesarea
				   both vindicate Arius and "restore" him to
				   Alexandria.
				3) Alexander of Alexandria claims outside inter-
				   ference and draw others into controversy.
			b. Matter festers until Council of Nicaea (325).

	C. Council of Nicaea (325).

		1. Involvement of Constantine.
			a. Constantine sent Hosius, bishop of Cordova, Spain
			   (definitely a Western-thinker) to assess matter.
			b. Hosius talks to another Hosius and a young Athanasius
			   and is convinced of their non-Arian thinking.
			c. Constantine still fears civil war and calls a general
			   council of bishops.
				1) First "ecumenical council" (from Greek oikomene;
				   cf. Luke 2:1ff.) at Nicaea.
				2) 318 bishops attend--100 from Asia Minor; 30 from
				   Syria; 20 from Egypt; 3 or 4 from the West (not
				   the bishop of Rome); Arius is present and makes
				   his defense.
				3) Met in hall of imperial palace--expenses paid by
				   Constantine; May 20--July 25, 325.
					a) Eusebius of Nicomedia argued for Arianism.
					b) Athanasius & 2 others for non-Arianism.

		2. The Council itself.
			a. Arian issue.
				1) Strong anti-Arian flavor--Constantine himself a
				   non-Arian.  
				2) Eusebius of Nicomedia proposed an openly Arian
				   creed, but it was thrown out.
				3) Eusebius of Caesarea proposed a creed which
				   simply used Biblical terms which predated the
				   Arian controversy; since it was still open to
				   Arian interpretation it was not accepted.
				4) Eusebius of Caesarea's creed was reworked and the
				   result was The Nicene Creed.
				5) All bishops present signed the document except
				   for two--the ones from Libya who had been ex-
				   communicated earlier.  Arius and these 2 bishops
				   were exiled by the council.
				6) The majority of bishops were semi-Arians and
				   signed with "fingers crossed" on June 19, 325.
			b. Other issues discussed (second month).
				1) Easter--the date and celebration of.
				2) Morals of the churches

- 36 -

				3) Organization of the churches.
				4) Analysis: Church has changed from a persecuted
				   body to a group struggling to keep its house in
				   order.
			c. Specific canons adopted at Nicaea:
				1) #11--Lapsed may be restored after 12 yrs. of
				        penance.
				2) #2---Warning not to allow recent converts to 
				        become bishops.
				3) #4---Ordination of bishop must be done by 3 other
				        bishops (already an est. practice).
				4) #6---Bishops of Libya, Egypt, Pentapolis (near
				        Sinai) to be subject to bishop of Alexandria
				        "because this is the custom in Rome."
				5) #15--No bishop, priest, or deacon can be
				        transferred from one city to another; "to
				        transfer is spiritual adultery."  This
				        begins to change only in 9th century.
				6) #17--Taking of interest or usury prohibited.
				7) #20--On Sundays and from Easter to Pentecost one
				        is permitted to pray standing up.
				8) #?--Apparently celibacy of clergy is discussed
				       and agreement reached with Eastern custom of
				       bachelor becoming priest cannot take a wife,
				       but married man could keep wife (strict
				       celibacy in West); a married priest could
				       never become a bishop.
			d. At conclusion of council Constantine threw a huge
			   banquet--Eusebius says it was like a dream.

	D. Post-Nicene troubles.

		1. General dissatisfaction.
			a. Most bishops signed but in private protested.
			b. Many of the semi-Arians grouped together with Eusebius
			   of Caesarea as spokesman.
			c. Constantia, sister of Constantine, may have intervened
			   and in 327 the exiles were recalled.
			d. Constantine & Arius meet; Arius agrees to an ambigu-
			   ously worded compromise and returns to leadership
			   position.

		2. Athanasius (296-373).
			a. Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria (328-337).
			b. Athanasius will not let Arius resume his ministry.
			c. Athanasius adopts a firm anti-Arian policy and many in
			   rural Egypt resent Athanasius.

		3. Semi-Arians attack pro-Nicene figures:
			a. Eustathius of Antioch (324-330).
				1) Charged with immorality; woman with a baby
				   produced at hearing--Eustathius thrown out

- 37 -

				2) Eustathius had made snide remarks about Helena
				   the empress and her pompous visits to Palestine--
				   "Helena had been a maid in a tavern."
				3) Eustathius deposed and exiled in 330.
			b. Marcellus of Ancyra (?-374).
				1) Charged with espousing Sabellianism.
				2) Deposed and sent into exile in Rome.
			c. Athanasius.
				1) Acknowledged anti-Arian leader.
				2) Accused of strong-arm tactics and hiring a hit-
				   man for murder (murder charge unfounded).
				3) Accused of sexual immorality.
				4) Arraigned at Council of Tyre in 335--stacked with
				   Arians; a fact-finding commission had been sent
				   to Alexandria; Athanasius condemned and deposed.
				5) Athanasius went to Constantinople and spoke with
				   Constantine who set aside the Tyre decision; C.
				   summoned Tyre members for "discussion."  C. was
				   swayed against Athanasius with a false story
				   about threatening to cut off Egyptian grain
				   supplies to Constantinople; C. sent Athanasius
				   into exile without a hearing in 336.  This was
				   the first of five exiles for Athanasius!
				6) In 336 Arius invited to emperor's court.  In
				   course of hearings he gets attack of diarrhea and
				   dies in bathroom.

		4. Constantine's favor to the Church encourages huge in-
		   fighting and power struggle within an increasingly
		   secularized Church.
			a. Situation worsens when Constantine dies in 337 and his
			   sons come into power.
			b. Constantine's sons:
				1) Constantine II (337-340) .... Gaul (Nicene).
				2) Constans (337-350) .......... Italy (Nicene).
				3) Constantius (337-361) ....... East (Semi-Arian).


VIII. FROM CONSTANTIUS TO THEODOSIUS.

	A. Division of Empire.

		1. When Constantine dies his 3 sons come into power
		   (see VII, D, 4, b just above).

		2. These brothers kill off the competition, then turn against
		   each other and in turn get turned on by others!
			a. 340--Constans kills Constantine II & takes over West.
			b. 350--Magnentius, general in West, revolts and kills
			        Constans.
			c. 353--Constantius defeats Magnentius; empire once again
			        has a single ruler

- 38 -

	B. Religious Problems during this Period.

		1. Constantine II sent Athanasius back to Egypt in 337.
			a. This outraged the semi-Arians.
			b. In 339 Athanasius is exiled to Rome; takes 2 monks
			   with him and monasticism is introduced into the West;
			   Athanasius writes a biography of St. Anthony.
			c. Athanasius and Marcellus meet in Rome and both ask for
			   an impartial hearing.  They are declared innocent.

		2. The "Dedication Council" in Antioch (341).
			a. Met on occasion of dedicating a church building.
			b. Discussed Ulfilas, a Gothic or half-Gothic Christian,
			   who converted to Arianism.
			c. At this council Ulfilas is consecrated to go to the
			   Goths.
				1) Creates Gothic alphabet and translates Scripture
				   into it.
				2) Book of Kings intentionally left out because of
				   its (and Goths'!) war-like nature.
				3) Ulfilas' work highly successful--Arian Christ-
				   ianity spreads to Germanic peoples.

		3. Council of Sardicia (343).
			a. Called by Constans and Constantius in Sardicia,
			   Yugoslavia.
			b. It was intended to be an ecumenical council to hammer
			   out unity; largely failed.
			c. Athanasius & Marcellus come; they are accepted by the
			   West, but not by the East.
			d. East and West got there but refused to meet together.
				1) Separate councils held; issued anathemas.
				2) This council (Western) established appellate
				   jurisdiction to bishop of Rome; backdated into
				   Nicene Council records, canon #6.

	C. Julian (361-363).

		1. Political background.
			a. None of Constantine's 3 sons themselves had sons;
			   Constantius groomed Julian to become caesar but is
			   eventually distrusted; sent to German frontier but
			   survives.
			b. In 361 Constantius calls Julian East to fight in
			   Persia; the Armies of the Rhine refuse to let Julian
			   go East and acclaim him the new emperor.
			c. Major face-off in the works; on the way to battle
			   Constantius dies of natural causes; Julian becomes
			   emperor of a united empire.



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		2. Julian the Apostate.
			a. Julian had prepared for priesthood earlier in life;
			   studied in Athens and had been exposed to pagan
			   writings.
			b. In 361 he publicly pushed paganism--hereafter known
			   as "Julian the Apostate."
			c. Attempted a grand revival of paganism.
				1) Recalled all Christian exiles--stir up disunity!
				2) Effort boomerangs--Christians unite against the
				   first pagan emperor in years.
				3) Tried to copy Christian organization and apply 
				   it to paganism--failed.
				4) In 363 Julian planned major campaign against the
				   Persians; on way East, in Grove of Daphne
				   (Antioch) he planned a huge pagan festival. 
				   Christians had been meeting here.  Locals
				   boycotted--1 old pagan priest showed up and 1
				   goose got sacrificed.
			d. Julian dies in battle against the Persians in 363.

		3. Cappodocian Theologians.
			a. Included: Basil of Caesarea (Asia Minor); Gregory of
			   Nyssa; Gregory of Nazaianzus.
			b. Basil became bishop of Caesarea in 370--made great
			   contributions in resolving Arian controversy:
				1) Emphasized no contradictions in Godhead.
				2) Defined problem--East & West using different
				   vocabulary.
				3) Attempted to moderate between Nicenes & Semi-
				   Arians rather than defend the Nicene position.
				4) His open attitude persuaded many Semi-Arians and
				   helped establish orthodoxy.
			c. Gregory of Nyssa--also contributed to Arian solution.
				1) Popularized the phrase: "God in 3 persons."
				2) Helped obliterate lines between Nicene & Semi-
				   Arians.
				3) By the end of the 4th century Arianism
				   practically disappears!

	D. Two Emperors.

		1. Jovian (363-364): When Julian dies Jovian is selected by
		   the Senate, but dies an accidental death in 364.

		2. Valentian (364-375).
			a. Valentinian chooses brother Valens to rule East.
				1) Valentian ........ Nicene (West).
				2) Valens ........... Semi-Arian (East).
			b. Valens (364-378) is not a dogmatic Arian--moderating.
			   Killed in a Gothic revolt in 378.


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	E. Theodosius (379-395).

		1. Political background:
			a. In 376 the Goths revolted; In 378 Valens and the
			   imperial army are wiped out at Hadrianople.
			b. Theodosius puts down the revolt; made emperor in 379;
			   sends Gothic soldiers to Egypt and sends Egyptian
			   soldiers to Gothic frontier.

		2. Theodosius and state religion.
			a. Feb. 380--issues edict--"All subjects will follow the
			   religion which Peter brought to Romans."  Edict
			   encourages all to become Christians.
			b. July 380--issues edict--All churches must be
			   surrendered to Nicene bishops; this effectively closes
			   down Arian churches.
			c. 383--Promised exile to Arians and all other groups who
			   dare to assemble in violation of catholic doctrine.
			d. Feb. 24, 391--All forms of pagan worship, sacrifice,
			   and prayer are outlawed.  Christianity becomes the
			   official religion of the Roman state.

	F. Gratian (375-383).

		1. Becomes emperor in the West after father's (Valentinian)
		   death; Senate confirms him.
			a. Refused title of Pontifex Maximus--"great bridge-
			   builder"--the high priest of paganism.
			b. Cuts off all state funds to pagan temples.

		2. 382--The altar of victory, a Roman god, is removed from
		   Senate chamber; Senators protest.

		3. 383--Gratian is killed by Spanish general, Magnus Maximus.
			a. MM is an upstart without much popular support.
			b. Priscillian, a heretic, had been condemned by church
			   leaders but his movement was growing.
			c. MM arranges a council and puts Priscillian on trial;
			   found guilty & condemned; Priscillian and 6 others
			   are executed by MM.
			d. In doing this MM hopes to gain favor of the church;
			   marks first time a Christian is executed by the state
			   because of heresy; establishes a tradition of "witch-
			   hunting" of heretics.

	G. Council of Constantinople (381).

		1. This is the second ecumenical council.
			a. Called by Theodosius.
			b. 150 bishops present--all from East. 
			c. No Egyptian bishops present.

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		2. Council dealt with four matters:
			a. Reaffirmed the Nicene Creed.
			b. Denounced Macedonianism (after Macedonius).
				1) Macedonius did to the Holy Spirit what Arius had
				   done to Jesus; HS is subordinate to Father & Son.
				2) Those holding this heresy are called "Pneumata-
				   machoi" = "those who fight against the Spirit."
				3) Macedonianism condemned at this council.
				4) Altered Nicene Creed to accommodate this change:
				   "... and in the Holy Spirit who proceeds from the
				    Father"; phrase understood differently:
					a) East understood HS proceeded through Son.
					b) West understood HS proceeded from the 					   Father and the Son (both equal).
					c) Gave rise to double-procession and single-
					   procession views.
					d) East's understanding has definite shades of
					   subordinationism.
					e) Filoque--Latin for "through the Son"; by
					   late 6th century copies of this revised 
					   Constantinople creed had this word in it;
					   Eastern copied did not.
				5) 36 Macedonianist bishops walk out when this
				   doctrine is condemned.
			c. Denounced Apollinarianism (after Apollinarius).
				1) Apollinarianism a reaction to Arianism which
				   said Jesus is subordinate--A'ism rectifies this
				   by going to other extreme--Jesus is full deity,
				   but not fully human.
				2) Reasoning: Eternal Logos not subject to change,
				   but humans are; therefore Jesus must not have had
				   a human will.
				3) Council reasoned that what the Logos did not
				   assume he could not redeem; Apollinarianism
				   condemned!
				4) Apollinarianism is a classic case of theology
				   in pendulum swing.
			d. Church organization.
				1) Declared: "The bishop of Constantinople has
				   primacy of honor after bishop of Rome since
				   Constantinople is `New Rome.'"
				2) Rome is #1, Constantinople is #2--why Rome?
				3) Primacy of Rome is guarded because of its
				   status as the old capital of Rome.

	H. Ambrose.

		1. Election of Ambrose.
			a. The bishop of Milan, an Arian, dies in 374 (Milan is
			   by this time the functional capital of Rome).
			b. Some army folks want another Arian; tense situation.

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			c. The election of bishop is supervised by governor of
			   the province; matters so tense that crowd chooses a
			   non-Christian governor as bishop--he is baptized one
			   week later!
			d. Ambrose eventually named bishop.

		2. Valentinian dies in 375 and Gratian assumes power.
			a. Gratian influenced by Arian mother Justina.
			b. Justina disappointed in Ambrose's selection and
			   provides a chapel in Milan for Arians.
			c. Gothic soldiers were to cordon off another chapel in
			   Milan, but Ambrose & others stage sit-in; Justina
			   gives up efforts.

		3. Ambrose and Valentian II (383-391).
			a. Valentian comes to throne at age 12 when Gratius dies.
			b. 384--Senate of Rome requests return of Altar of
			   Victory; Senate has Symmachus present petition to
			   Milan.  Valentian II is ready to give in, but Ambrose
			   challenges Symmachus in Valentian's presence.  Ambrose
			   told Valentian that if he allowed return of pagan
			   statue he would be excommunicated.

		4. Ambrose and Theodosius.
			a. Theodosius came to the West in 388.
			b. Monks in Mesopotamia incite Christians to burn a
			   synagogue and Gnostic church bldg; Jews complain;
			   Governor tells bishop to rebuild it; Bishop refuses;
			   Matter reaches Milan in 388; Theodosius orders re-
			   building.
			c. Ambrose stopped a worship service and told Theodosius 
			   to leave if he didn't change his mind about the order.
			d. 390--Theodosius is in Milan again; In Thessalonica
			   there had been a chariot race and a popular charioteer
			   had been justly jailed for wrongdoing; mob went to
			   release him but general refused; mob killed general
			   and word reaches Theodosius; Theodosius orders troops
			   to gather citizens in Chariot Hippodrome and kill
			   them; changes his mind, but the rescinded order does
			   not reach Thessalonica in time.  3,000 Christian
			   civilians are killed.  Next Sunday as Theodosius came
			   to church Ambrose refused to let him in--had to do
			   public penance.  Theodosius held out for 8 months--
			   then knelt on steps of Milan church and begged Ambrose
			   for forgiveness!
			e. 391--Theodosius makes Christianity the state religion.


IX. MONASTICISM.

	A. Impulses and Antecedents.

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		1. Impulses and antecedents in Scripture:
			a. "Love not the world" = abandon the world.
			b. "Crucify yourself" = inflict pain on self.

		2. Greek philosophical influence.
			a. Stoics: passion in life are to be overcome; goal is to
			   attain an emotional even-keel; this was broadened in
			   monasticism to include more than emotions.
			b. Gnostic ideology was defeated in Christendom, but here
			   it comes in the back door--flesh is evil, spirit good.

		3. White martyrdom.
			a. Persecutions end with Constantine; thus martyrdom ends
			   and there is no way to prove yourself spiritually.
			b. Monasticism fills this need in 4th century; known as
			   "white" martyrdom as opposed to "red" martyrdom.

		4. Purism/rigorism.
			a. Rapid growth of Christianity since Constantine meant
			   that many were becoming Christians for less than ideal
			   reasons.
			b. Quality of church life declines--"worldly church."
			c. Many head into monasticism to avoid compromise with
			   the world.

	B. Monasticism in the East.

		1. Anthony (251-356).
			a. Biography and background.
				1) First classical monk; father of Monasticism.
				2) Born in central Egypt, orphaned at young age but
				   inherited large family farm which supported him.
				3) Age 20--went to church service where a gospel
				   account was being read, walked in the door and
				   heard, "Sell all you have and come follow me." 
				   Knew Lord was speaking to him!  Sold all and did
				   this; lived for 15 years as an apprentice monk
				   under an older hermit monk.
				4) 285--goes to desert to live alone.
			b. Life.
				1) Spent much time in prayer, contemplation, and 
				   mystical experiences.
				2) Claims to have "wrestled with the Devil."
				3) Anthony's reputation as a holy man led to many
				   seeking him out to be taught.
				4) 305--organizes a community of hermits--engaged
				   in the "laura" stage of monasticism--physically
				   together but living separately as hermits.
			c. Some monastic terminology:
				1) Stage 1: Greek "anchorite" and Latin "eremitic"
				   applied to monks; "hermit" comes from Latin.
				2) Stage 2: "Coenobitic" = monks in communal life

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		2. Pachomius (290-346).
			a. Life:
				1) Born in Egypt; veteran soldier; becomes monk 317.
				2) Soon realized he was not cut out to be a hermit.
			b. Work:
				1) 320--established first monastery in Southern
				   Egypt along the Nile.
				2) Began coenobitic (common life) monasticism.
				3) Pachomius drew up rules for monastic life--known 
				   as the Rule of Pachomius.
					a) Regular clergy ... monks (regula--rule).
					b) Secular clergy ... priests (parish work).
				4) Rule of Pachomius had 3 key elements: celibacy,
				   poverty, and obedience to the abbot ("father")
				   of the community; obedience element added and
				   stressed by Pachomius.
				5) Pachomius made manual labor a part of the monk's
				   daily regimen.
				6) Coenobitic monasticism (monasteries) became main-
				   line monasticism.
				7) By end of his life Pachomius had established 11
				   monasteries--2 of which were made up of women.

		3. Hilarion (291-371).
			a. Son of pagans; went to Alexandria for school;
			   converted there.
			b. 306--returned to Palestine in Gaza and became a
			   hermit; attracted some followers.
			c. Hilarion helped spread monasticism beyond Egypt to a
			   wider audience.

		4. Basil (330-379).
			a. Established a monastery in Pontus in 358.
			b. Revised the Rule of Pachomius to become the Rule of
			   Basil which became standard for Eastern monastics.
			c. Changed the purpose of monasticism.
				1) Saw it here-to-fore as self-centered.
				2) Turned it outward to involve monks in ministry.
			d. Rule of Basil has these four tendencies:
				1) Suppresses anchorites (hermits).
				2) Moves monasteries from deserts to cities.
				3) Emphasizes learning of all types.
				4) Limited time spent in prayer and devotion
				   (reduced to 8x per day).
			e. Rule of Basil and prayer.
				1) Some Scriptural precedent:
					a) Ps. 119:164--"7 times a day I praise thee."
					b) Ps. 119:62--"Rise at midnight to praise
					   thee" (night office).
				2) Eight times of prayer (varies Summer to Winter).
					a) Lauds ......  Daybreak.
					b) Prince .....  6:00 A.M

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					c) Tierce .....  9:00 A.M.
					d) Sext ....... 12:00 Noon.
					e) None .......  3:00 P.M.
					f) Vespers ....  Sundown.
					g) Complive ...  Darkness ("lights out?")
					h) Matins .....  2:00 A.M. (night office)
			f. Basil declared monasteries should not have more than
			   30-40 monks.
				1) Tried to keep monasteries under rule of the 
				   bishop but was unsuccessful.
				2) Tried to make each monastery self-supporting;
				   many were.

		5. Simeon Stylites (390-459).
			a. Some of the strange ascetic practices of this period:
				1) One meal per week.
				2) Sleep deprivation--one method was to stand all
				   night in water up to your chin.
				3) Some monks made small cages in which it was im-
				   possible to sit, stand, or lay out; one monk
				   lived this way for 60 years!
			b. Background of Simeon.
				1) At age 23 Simeon was a cave hermit for 40 days;
				   chained his right leg to a stone; one Summer he
				   buried himself up to his chin daily.
				2) At age 33 (423) he built a pillar 6 ft. high with
				   a platform 4 ft. square and stayed there the rest
				   of his life; rarely came down; changed pillars
				   occasionally--last one was 60 ft. high.  Simeon
				   never took a bath during these 36 years.  His
			 	   followers cherished worms that fell from his
				   body.  Constantly cut himself for bugs to feed
				   on; did sit-ups for devotion--one follower
				   counted 1,244 forehead to toes before lost count!
			c. Many of these extremists were preoccupied with sex and
			   its denial.
				1) Many never took a bath--fear of seeing own body
				   and having lust aroused.
				2) Some prided themselves on how long it had been
				   since they had seen a woman.
				3) Modern monastery of Mt. Ethos (Macedonia) is all
				   male and will not even allow female animals on
				   the grounds!
				4) Women were seen as the symbol of sex; Adam &
				   Eve's sin was sex; women seen as instruments of
				   Satanic desires.
				5) Middle Ages: Children often given to monasteries
				   at birth (called oblates); some grew up never
				   having seen a woman.  One young man who had never
				   seen a woman saw one and asks abbot, "What was
				   that?"  "A demon!" abbot replies.  Young man:
				   "Prettiest thing I ever did see!

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				6) One of the exercises monks would sometime engage
				   in was to spend night naked in bed with a naked
				   woman--showed ability to stifle desire.  Many
				   failed this test.

	C. Monasticism in the West.

		1. Introduction.
			a. Introduced into West by Athanasius when he brought two
			   monks to Rome during an exile there.
			b. Marcellina, cousin of Ambrose, was consecrated as a 
			   virgin in 353.

		2. Jerome (342-420).
			a. Studied in Rome and became a Christian; went home to
			   Northern Italy to be a monk.
			b. Later went to Palestine to be a hermit monk.
			c. 382--returned to Rome and launched major propaganda
			   campaign to enlist others to monasticism; great
			   success, particularly among women; virginity made an
			   ideal--many men become upset!  Jerome's life is
			   threatened in 385.
			d. 385--returned to Palestine, joined by Roman ladies who
			   began monasteries; had been commissioned to do a Latin
			   translation--later known as The Vulgate.

		3. Martin of Tours (335-397).
			a. Drafted in army at age 15 by his father to keep him
			   from becoming a Christian--still became one!
			b. Established first monastery in Gaul--360.
			c. 370--becomes bishop of Tours; later the patron saint
			   of France.
			d. First non-martyred saint in the West.
			e. Martin a part of the episcopal phase of monasticism
			   where bishops establish monasteries for their own
			   clergy.

		4. Honoratus (350-429).
			a. Born in the West, traveled East and was exposed to
			   monasticism and brought it back West with him.
			b. Established monastery at Lerins, France.
				1) This monastery developed a reputation for
				   biblical scholarship.
				2) Vincent of Lerins (d. 450) made the Canon of
				   Vincent--orthodoxy is "that which has been
				   believed everywhere, always, and by all."  The
			 	   test of ecumenicity, test of antiquity, and test
				   of universal consent.

		5. John Cassian (360-435).
			a. Most significant person in Western monasticism since
			   Jerome

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			b. Established two monasteries near Marseilles, France.
			c. Compiled the Rule of John Cassian--became the basis of
			   Benedict's work.

		6. Benedict of Nursia (480-550).
			a. Founder of Western monasticism--organized it and gave
			   it its flavor through the Middle Ages.
			b. Born 480 to son of distinguished Italian family;
			   educated in Rome; disgusted with sensual lifestyle;
			   holed up in cave outside of Rome for next 25 years. 
			   Cave: Subiaca--swamped by devotees.
			c. Developed 12 monasteries of 12 monks each; 1 abbot for 			   each of them; developed a rule for them.
			d. Went South in 525 to avoid internal struggle in ranks
			   of his followers.  Found an abandoned temple--became
			   Monte Cassion--"headquarters" of Benedictine
			   monasteries; monasteries were independent but
			   structured under the Rule of Benedict.
			e. Rule of Benedict:
				1) Emphasized humility and poverty.
				2) Nothing said about a vow of celibacy--indicates
				   it was probably assumed by this time.

		7. Cassiodorus (485-580).
			a. In the Roman civil service; retired in 540; went to
			   Southern Italy and turned family home into a
			   monastery--Vivarium.
			b. Cassiodorus loved books--collected as many old manu-
			   scripts, religious or otherwise, as he could; trained
			   monks to copy books in a scriptorium.
				1) Preserved stuff otherwise lost.
				2) Developed techniques for copying.
				3) Monasteries now become manuscript repositories;
				   monasteries traded manuscripts to copy.
				4) Monasteries eventually become in the Middle Ages
				   the nearest thing to higher education there was.


X. AUGUSTINE (354-430) AND THE FIFTH CENTURY.

	A. Happenings in the Roman Empire:

		1. Theodosius was the last emperor of united empire (379-395).

				WEST						EAST
			a. Honorius (395-423)		a. Arcadius (395-408)
			b. John (423-425)			b. Theodosius II (408-450)
			c. Valentinian III (425-455)	c. Marcian (450-457)

		2. The Germanic tribes are live threat throughout this period.
			a. Visigoths invade Greece briefly in Arcadius' reign;
			   led by Alaric, Visigoths go west up the Adriatic

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			   Stilicho, leader of the Western armies, keeps
			   Visigoths from further advances by pulling troops out
			   of the Rhine and Britain.
			b. In 406 several Germanic tribes push west; Vandals go
			   through Gaul into Spain; Honorius feels betrayed by
			   Stilicho at this latest advance into the empire--
			   Stilicho is a half-Vandal himself!  Stilicho's army,
			   keeping Visigoths contained, "allowed" Vandals into
			   West.  Stilico is assassinated.
			c. With Stilicho dead his army is confused; Visigoths
			   push into Italian peninsula; In 409 Visigoths beseige
			   Rome--first time since Hannibal 625 yrs. earlier that
			   a foreign army reached gates of Rome!; 500 pounds of
			   gold given to Visigoths to make them leave; They
			   return in 410 with the same demands, but Rome is
			   unable to comply; Rome captured by Visigoths--first
			   time occupied by foreigners in 800 years!; Alaric dies
			   in 411 in Southern Italy; troops bury him secretly by
			   diverting a river, burying him, returning the river to
			   its normal course.

	B. Augustine's biography:

		1. Early life.
			a. Born in Tigaste, North Africa, to a patrician family;
			   oldest of three children; Mother (Monica) is a
			   Christian, father is not; at 16 sent to Carthage Univ.
			b. Monica urged Augustine not to be baptized until he had
			   sown his wild oats; Monica still has many pagan
			   concepts; at Carthage Univ. Augustine loses whatever
			   Christian inclination he had, largely due to mother's
			   superstitious view of Christianity.
			c. At 17 he takes a mistress and lives with her faith-
			   fully for 15 years; has one son--Adeodatus; never
			   records the name of his mistress!

		2. Spiritual odyssey.
			a. Manichee: Manichees held "gnostic" viewpoint; was a
			   Manichee for 9 years;  Attracted to Manichee
			   explanation of evil--matter = evil, but leaves it
			   because it does not explain WHY there is evil.
			b. Neo-Platonist: Not fully satisfying either.


		3. Conversion to Christianity.
			a. Moved to Rome against Monica's wishes; soon discovered
			   Rome no better than Carthage.
			b. Learns of a teacher vacancy offered by Symmachus, a
			   pagan in Milan; Monica catches up with him in Milan;
			   Monica hears Ambrose preach and urges Augustine to
			   hear him; he does and is impressed--begins to
			   investigate Christianity

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			c. At mother's urging he throws un-named mistress out,
			   keeping the son; however he later takes another one!
			d. In 386 Augustine is converted under the preaching of
			   Ambrose; On Easter Sunday he and son are baptized by
			   Ambrose; returns to Tigaste, North Africa in 387; 
			   becomes a monk and starts a monastery.
			e. In 391 while passing through Hippo-Rhegius he is
			   ordained; 395 made ass't bishop; becomes bishop in 396
			   and remains so until his death in 430.
			f. Wrote Confessions (ca. 400).  Written in form of a
			   prayer to God; highly influential work.

		4. Augustine and Donatist problem.
			a. As bishop of Hippo, Augustine took hard line against
			   the Donatists, attacking them on several counts:
				1) Prided themselves on being "the true church";
				   rebaptized all in-coming "catholics"; Augustine
				   showed Donatists not saints they claim to be!
				2) Augustine declared Donatists not continuing in
				   sound doctrine because of narrowness!  Developed
				   a formula for evaluation:
					a)"One holy, catholic, apostolic church."
					b) Donatists fail to meet any of 4 adjectives!
				3) Catholic church is the true church because of its
				   purposes.
					a) Begins distinction between visible and in-
					   visible church.
					b) Paradox: "Church that is w/o spot & blemish
					   must always pray `forgive our sins.'"
			b. 411--Orthodox and Donatist Council.
				1) Augustine there, as were 600 bishops--all from
				   North Africa; indication of church strength then.
				2) Many Donatists abandon their position, largely
				   due to Augustine's writings.
				3) Some Donatists survive until Muslim invasion
				   centuries later.

	C. Augustine and Pelagius.

		1. Pelagius, a British monk, arrives in Rome about 410.
			a. Finds morally lax atmosphere and blames it on the
			   teaching of original sin and its determinism.
			b. Rejected notion that nature of man is so corrupt that
			   it cannot obey God; Jesus not just redeemer but
			   example--"Be ye perfect!"
			c. Some suggest Pelagius was a stern moralist, able to
			   live a rigid lifestyle himself and expected others to
			   do the same.
			d. Pelagius' teachings encouraged a "self-induced
			   morality"--a sort of "bootstraps religion."


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		2. Pelagius and many others flee to Carthage after Visigoth
		   invasion of Rome.
			a. Here Augustine counters his teaching.
			b. The doctrines of total hereditary depravity and
			   original sin were formed by Augustine in this context.
			c. Augustine able to score big points because of the
			   widespread practice of infant baptism; reasons it is
			   useless unless original sin is a reality.

		3. Splinter parties emerge as a result of this debate:
		Issue:Augustine
			Pelagius
			Semi-Augustine/Pelagius
			GuiltYes!No!No--guiltCorruptionYes!No!Yes--tendency to sin
		4. Augustine and Sex:
			a. Sex itself is evil; desire for children only excuse
			   for having it.
			b. All methods of birth control is bad; position of
			   church developed out of this thinking; birth control
			   condones & promotes lust, making sex an end in itself
			   and nullifying its original purpose.
			c. Augustine more strict than Catholic Church; Augustine
			   would say, "Rhythm method is cheating!"

		5. Augustine's City of God--his most influential work.
			a. Grew out of confusion over Visigoth invasion of Rome;
			   Everyone is asking, "WHY?"
				1) Pagans: gods are angry because temples are being
				   abandoned due to Christian influence.
				2) Augustine writes to answer this charge.
				3) Begins work in 412, finishes in 427.
			b. POINT: Greatness of Rome not due to its gods, but to
			   God's purpose for Rome.
				1) Rome an earthly city subject to decay like every-
				   thing else.
				2) The sack of Rome is not an argument against X'ty,
				   but for it--proves nothing is permanent!
				3) The Church/City of God will last forever!
			c. Radical shift in Western historiography or under-
			   standing of history.
				1) Greeks: history is cyclical, repeats itself.
				2) Augustine: history is linear; starts at a point
				   and follows God's purposes; history has meaning!

	D. Roman Claims (West).



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		1. Roman Church gaining prestige during Augustine's time.
			a. Damasus (bishop of Rome, 366-384) in 382 called a
			   synod at which the phrase "primacy of church at Rome"
			   used for first time.  "The apostolic see" first used
			   by Damasus also.
			b. Innocent I (401-417) thanks the church at Carthage for
			   informing Rome of a synodal decision. 
				1) Carthage merely informing Rome.
				2) Innocent I misunderstands and commended Carthage
				   for asking guidance of "The Apostolic See."

		2. Apiarus, Rome, and Carthage.
			a. Apiarus, a Carthage priest, was deposed in 417 by a
			   council; Apiarus appealed to Rome and bishop Zosimus
			   (417-418).
			b. Zosimus, citing Council of Sardica, demands that
			   Apiarus be reinstated; Zosimus also refers to Nicene
			   Creed (connected to Council of Sardica); Carthage does
			   not have the edited copy (done at Sardica).
			c. Meanwhile ... Zosimus dies; Apiarus repents and is
			   reinstated at Carthage irrespective of Roman decision.
			d. Apiarus falls into same sin a few years later, de-
			   posed, again appeals to Rome & bishop Celestine I
			   (422-432).
			e. There is a rehearing and Rome decided Apiarus should
			   be reinstated; Carthage ignores Rome's claim to have
			   appellate jurisdiction.

	E. Theological Controversy (East).

		1. Situation in the East generally during this period.
			a. There are some major theological areas of disagreement
			   that have been left unresolved.
			b. Much of this unrest is intertwined with church
			   politics which greatly fuel theological discussion.
				1) Rome is the only patriarchate in West.
				2) In East there is Jerusalem (honorary),
				   Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria which all
				   strive for dominance.

		2. Nestorianism.
			a. Two bishops figure prominently.
				1) Cyril--bishop of Alexandria in 412 (412-444).
				2) Nestorius--bishop of Antioch in 428 (428-431).
			b. Nestorius concerned about the use of theotokos (God-
			   bearer) for Mary.
				1) If Jesus is God then Mary is the mother of God.
				2) Mary cannot be mother of God the Father, but Son.
				3) Suggests christotokos (Christ-bearer) instead.
				4) Nestorius declared the infant in the cradle was
				   not deity--it's just Jesus; adult Jesus is full
				   deity, not baby--doesn't say when shift happened

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			c. Cyril objects and the 3rd Ecumenical Council is
			   called--at Ephesus in 431.
				1) Called by Theodosius II, emperor in the East.
				2) Alexandrian bishops on time, Antiochenes late;
				   Nestorius refuses to attend; council begins with
				   anti-Nestorians and Cyril there in strength.
				3) Decree that Jesus has 2 natures--divine & human.
				4) Nestorianism condemned and Nestorius is deposed
				   as bishop of Constantinople.
				5) 198 bishops are present and they all sign Antioch
				   is still absent; 4 days later 43 Antioch bishops
				   arrive and reject the decision, forming a
				   counter-council that denounced Cyril.

		3. Monophysitism.
			a. Cyril, victorius at Council of Ephesus, pushed the
			   condemnation of Nestorius to extremes.
				1) Acknowledged the 2 natures in the abstract.
				2) Declared incarnate Lord had one nature--divine.
			b. Eutyches of Constantinople termed this position
			   "Monophysitism."
				1) Similar to Apollonarianism.
				2) Much opposition to Monophysitism.
			c. 449--another Ephesus council called by Theodosius II.
				1) Wife of Theodosius II was sympathetic to mono-
				   physitism.
				2) Dioscurus (444-454) placed in charge of this
				   council as a monophysite.
				3) Dioscurus brings in a large number of Egyptians
				   who cause riots in Ephesus; bishop of
				   Constantinople gets beaten up.
			d. Leo of Rome is asked for his position in the
			   controversy.
				1) Letter of his views sent to council.
				2) Being anti-monophysite it was ignored.
				3) Leo termed this council latrocinium--"synod of
				   thieves."
				4) Though called as an ecumenical council, it was
				   not accepted as one in retrospect.

		4. Council of Chalcedon (451).
			a. Theodosius II dies, leaving no son; has a sister--
			   Pulcheria--whoever marries her becomes the emperor.
			b. Marcarion wins her--both are opposed to the mono-
			   physite position--call the Council of Chalcedon.
				1) 500 bishops attend--all from East; only 5 from
				   West, 3 of these from Rome & 2 refugees from 
				   Germanic tribes.
				2) Dioscorus deposed.
				3) Monophysite position condemned.
				4) Letter of Leo read and approved; a statement of
				   what nature of Christ is not rather than what is

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			c. Graph: How the pendulum shifts.

Condemning Council:	Hyper-Human Heresy	Hyper-Divine Heresy:

Nicaea (325)		Arianism			
Constantinople (381)					Apollonarianism	
Ephesus (431)		Nestorianism		
Chalcedon (451)						Monophysite

			d. Observations:
				1) Whoever says what the nature of Christ is gets
				   condemned.
				2) Safest course (cf. Leo) is to state what the
				   nature is not.
				3) Leo condemns BOTH Nestorianism and Monophysitism. 			
	4) Positively, Leo states:
					a) Jesus is 100% God (vs. Arius, Nestorius).
					b) Jesus is 100% Human (vs. Apoll., Mono.).
					c) There is no controversy in affirming Jesus
					   as "very God" and "very Man."
				5) Leo's statement becomes orthodoxy!
				6) East debates the nature of Christ (Nestorianism
				   and Monophysitism) while West debates the nature
				   of Man!
					a) East ..... abstract.
					b) West ..... practical.			
			e. Two canons from Chalcedon:
				1) #17: The civic status of a city determines its
				        ecclesiastical status.
				2) #28: Constantinople (a.k.a. "New Rome") has a
				        status similar to "Old Rome" (revision of an 					  earlier council).


XI. CELTIC CHRISTIANITY.

	A. Beginnings of Celtic Christianity.

		1. Background of the Celts.
			a. Originate in Eastern Europe and migrate to Western
			   Europe about 500 B.C.
			b. Pre-literate people; no archaeological remains as they
			   built exclusively with wood.
			c. Between 500-400 B.C. Celts over-run most of Europe--
			   Spain, Gaul, Northern Italy, British Isles.
			d. Celts constitute a series of related tribes--not one
			   unified people.


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		2. Christianity in Gaul.
			a. In the second century Christianity reached the Rhone
			   River valley and Lyon; Celts living there impacted.
			b. Martin of Tours a prominent figure--known as "Apostle 
			   of Gaul" (mid/late 4th century).
				1) Established first monastery (360).
				2) Became bishop of Tours (370).
			c. Near Marseilles a monastery was established at Lerins
			   which became the major center of education for Gallic
			   religious leaders; Eastern monastic influence felt.

		3. Christianity in Britain.
			a. Venerable Bede (     ), historian of British history,
			   mentions that King Lucius sent a request to Rome for
			   missionaries (ca. 167).
				1) Likely hagiography as there is no king in England 				   at this early date.
				2) Likely a germ of truth, however, as 167 is a good
				   date for arrival of Christianity.
			b. The Council of Arles (314) had 3 bishops from Britain
			   (London, York, & ?).
			c. Athanasius (325) says British churches accepted the
			   Nicene decision.

		4. Ninian (360-432).
			a. First significant missionary to the Scottish people.
			b. Apparently the son of a converted Scottish chieftain;
			   educated in Rome, returning to Scotland about 400.
			c. On return he met Martin of Tours; Ninian established
			   a monastery because of this--it was called Whithorn.
			d. Ninian's work was not overly successful.

		5. Patrick (389-461).
			a. Early life is disputed; apparently born in NW England,
			   son of a deacon named Calpernicus (married clergy?!)
			b. Kidnapped by pirates and sold as a slave to Ireland.
			c. Had a vision; escaped Ireland; may have gone back to
			   England or perhaps Gaul.
			d. Ends up at Lerins (412-415?); left there and by 432 is
			   in Ireland as a missionary; Celtic Christianity will
			   continue with elements of Eastern monasticism for
			   centuries--Patrick at Lerins is the link!
			e. Historical analysis: Part of confusion over Patrick is
			   the place of Palladius, a monk from Gaul who goes to
			   Ireland in 431 to combat Pelagianism; some say he went
			   there to help Patrick, others say he got there before
			   Patrick and Patrick joined him.  NOTE: If Palladius
			   goes to Ireland to combat Pelagianism there are
			   Christians there; Patrick may not have started his
			   ministry from scratch.
			f. Patrick established his "see" in Armagh, later it
			   became the "primal see.

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	B. Political Pressures.

		1. Roman status.
			a. By the early 5th century Rome cannot defend Britain
			   against the Picts (Scotland).
			b. The last Roman officer in Britain revolted against
			   Rome in 406, took troops to Gaul where he established
			   a small kingdom.
			c. In 409 Britons request Roman protection--denied.
			d. Britain begins to recruit soldiers from "Germany"
			   (Angles, Saxons, Jutes).

		2. Angles, Saxons, Jutes.
			a. Their recruitment by Britain in the 5th century for
			   protection against the Picts resulted in a huge
			   migration/invasion.
			b. A,S,J subdivide Britain into various kingdoms.
				1) A septarchy--7 kingdoms.
				2) Kent the only Jute kingdom; Canterbury, the
				   capital of Kent, became dominant.
			c. Native population of Britain is virtually wiped out;
			   Christianity begins to die out; Celts made no attempt
			   to evangelize the Germans; as Celts die out Britain
			   reverts to paganism.
			d. Ireland is untouched by German migration and
			   Christianity develops in isolation for at least 150
			   years; develops some unique forms.

		3. Gildas (500-570).
			a. The Fall of Britain documents the A,S,J genocide.
			b. This document, while not completely reliable, does 
			   contain a solid core of data.
			c. Tells of Ambrosius Aurelianus (ca. 450) who rallied
			   the Celts in SW England; defeats Saxons; British
			   Christians maintain a pocket in Devonshire.  May be
			   the basis for the Arthur legends.
			d. Wales and Devonshire/Cornwall becomes the seed-bed for
			   later Christian expansion and influence westward.

	C. Form of Irish Christianity.

		1. Christianity in Ireland: Problem and Solution.
			a. The problem:
				1) First land area exposed to Christianity that did
				   not have a base in Roman culture; bound to take
				   some alternate forms.
				2) Cities crucial for Roman X'ty; Rural Ireland
				   unable to support diocesan form of X'ty.
			b. The solution:
				1) Adopt a model more appropriate to native locale.
				2) Monastery system with abbots/chieftains--abbots
				   most often chieftains who function as bishops

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		2. Shape of Irish Christianity.
			a. Some unique forms:
				1) Double monastery--both sexes; divided by a thick 
				   wall; these were always headed by an abbess!
				2) Celtic monasticism has a definite Eastern flavor,
				   weird stuff and all (e.g. a monk who did not say
				   "amen" after grace received 6 lashes.
				3) Poverty & solitude valued; hermitism not unknown
				   in Ireland.
				4) Peregrinatio, "spiritual wandering" is popular;
				   St. Brendan allegedly traveled quite far West by
				   boat (Iceland?  Greenland?  Nova Scotia?).
			b. Penitentials.
				1) Public confession of major sins is not the trend;
				   private confession of all sins to priest is.
				2) Put strain on priest to compe up with meaningful
				   penance; result: The Penitential--list of all
				   possible sins with the appropriate penance.
				3) Sliding scale worked out based on seriousness of
				   sin, degree of will involved, position in life of
				   sinner (priest, monk, layman, etc.)
				4) Sinner had option of substituting a longer,
				   milder penance fora shorter, more severe one.
			c. Love of books.
				1) Illustrated copies of the gospels--e.g. 1st
				   letter huge, adorned elaborately in fine detail.
				2) Fascination with unusual words--made lists of
				   unique words in Greek texts and other manuscripts
				   and tried to work them into current usage.
				3) In the 7th & 8th centuries Celtic Christianity is
				   the intellectual high mark of all Europe.
			d. Tonsure--arrangement and length of hair.
				1) Roman X'ian tonsure bald on top, hair on sides.
				2) Celtic tonsure shaved everything on back half of
				   head behind the ears.
				3) In late 6th & early 7th Roman X'ty re-enters
				   England and customs collide--2 forms become focus
				   of ridicule and friction.
			e. Easter--when to celebrate it?
				1) Celtics accepted European form on 84 yr. cycle.
				2) Ireland (in isolation) kept this form; in 455
				   Rome changed from an 84 yr. cycle to 18 yr.
				   cycle.  When Roman missionaries arrive later they
				   have a problem.  Rome argues her authority over
				   Celtic Christianity.

		3. Columban (521-597).
			a. Irish monk, became monastic leader--bibliophile in
			   extreme; made copy of every book he could get. 
			b. Story: A visitor from Jerusalem arrived at his
			   monastery with a book about Jerusalem; placed it in
			   the library while he was there.  Columban aske

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			   permission to copy it.  Was refused.  Copied it
			   secretly.  Venerable Bede records that a monk saw him
			   and reported him to the abbot.  Visitor demanded to
			   keep both copies.  Matter brought before a local wise
			   man--"just as calf goes with cow, so book with copy. 
			   Columban angry and tells clan which attacks abbot of
			   monastery and his clan--3,000 killed.  Columban later
			   repents and vows to convert one soul for each one
			   killed.  Recruits 12 others and goes to Scotland,
			   establishing a monastery on island of Iona in 563. 
			   This becomes the foot-hold for spread of Christianity
			   to Scotland and Northumbria.

		4. Columbanus (550-615).
			a. Same name as Columban--some variations (cf. above). 
			b. Wandering Irish monk who goes to Gaul in 590 and
			   established several monasteries.
				1) Outspoken in condemning local morality.
				2) Often forced to move; each time he moved he
				   planted a new monastery.
			c. Roman Christianity adopted the Irish penitential
			   system through this influence; when Irish Christianity
			   became extinct with the Viking destruction of
			   monasteries, the penitential system lived on!


XII. CHRISTIANITY AND THE GERMAN TRIBES.

	A. Early German activity.

		1. Work of Ulfilas.
			a. Consecrated for work among the Goths at Council of
			   Antioch in 341.
			b. Goths eventually accepted Christianity; spread to
			   other Germanic peoples through them.
			c. Arian form of Christianity was what was passed on.
			d. Visigoths, Vandals, Burgundians, Lombards all come
			   into empire as heretic Christians.

		2. Germanic migrations.
			a. At least 3 major tribal groups migrated westward out
			   of Russia beginning about 500 B.C.
			b. May have been pushed westward by the Huns; by 372 the
			   Huns coming through are definitely pushing Goths and
			   others westward.

		3. Visigoths.
			a. After the invasion of Italy, the Visigoths come out of
			   Italy in 411 and meet Vandals moving from the Rhine to
			   the Pyrenees.
			b. Visigoths eventually move into France and Spain,
			   settling mostly in Spain

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		4. Vandals.
			a. Tracing their migration:
				1) Move from Rhine to Pyrenees about 411.
				2) Cross from Spain to Africa in 429.
				3) At the gates of Hippo-Rhegius in 430; as
				   Augustine lays dying city besieged by Vandals.
				4) Attack Rome from Carthage in 455.
			b. Significance:
				1) Vandals are narrow-minded, bigoted Arian
				   Christians hostile to Catholic Christianity.
				2) Churches of North Africa never fully recover from
				   the Vandal onslaught and its aftermath.

		5. Burgundians.
			a. Filter into Gaul behind first the Vandals, then the
			   Visigoths.
			b. Cross Rhine about 413; much of the basis for Wagner's
			   tale of the rings comes from this Burgundian movement.
			c. Eventually settle in Switzerland, SE France.
			d. Gundobad (480-516), king of the Burgundians who are
			   Arian Christians.
				1) Early 6th century issues a compilation of Bur-
				   gundian law applying to his people; Roman law
				   applicable to natives.
				2) Allows inter-marriage with other peoples; one of
				   more tolerant tribes in this regard.
				3) Several princesses convert to Catholic X'ty.
				4) Gundobad's son and successor converts to Catholic
				   X'ty in 516--first of Germanic kings to do so.

		6. Franks.
			a. History:
				1) Move into Netherlands about 350; enrolled as a
				   Federatae; move into France in early 5th century.
				2) Come into empire as heathens--too far north (like
				   the Angles, Saxons, Jutes) to be reached by X'ty
				   from other tribes.
				3) Made no distinction between themselves and the
				   native population.
				4) Rome favors the Franks because they were not
				   tainted with Arian teachings; this resulted in
				   the Franco-Papal alliance and later the Holy
				   Roman Empire.
			b. Clovis (481-511).
				1) In 492/493 he marries Chlotilde, a Burgundian
				   Catholic Christian, niece of Gundobad.
				2) Chlotilde moved Clovis toward faith.
				3) In 495 Clovis faced an important battle and vowed
				   to become a X'ian if he won; he did and became a
				   X'ian in 496.
				4) Most of the Franks become Christians through
				   Chlotilde and Clovis

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	B. Italy.

		1. Emperor Honorius (395-423).
			a. At his death in 423 John rules (423-425), then
			   Valentian III (425-455)--a nephew of Honorius.
			b. By this time the Roman empire has largely been
			   reduced to the Italian peninsula.

		2. Rome meets Attila the Hun.
			a. Aetius (d. 455) becomes ruler of Roman armies; his
			   mother is a Hun, father Roman.  
				1) Because of this Hun association, Attila demands
				   sister of Valentinian as his bride.  
				2) He was refused.
			b. Attila invaded Europe and Roman and Germanic tribes
			   unite to fight him. 
				1) 451--Battle of Chalons--after one week the Huns
				   are defeated and pushed back. 
				2) Rather than go East they turn toward Italy.
			c. Leo I (bishop of Rome) goes North with a small group
			   of bureaucrats and bodyguards to negotiate with
  			   Attila to stay out of Italy.
				1) Attila accepts a payment of gold and leaves.
				2) Attila leaves for three reasons:
					a) Gold.
					b) Fear of being bottled up by Aetius' army.
					c) Knew Rome unhealthy in Summer--malaria.
			d. Valentinian II assassinates Aetius in 455 because he
			   is half-Hun and he distrusts him; Valentinian III is
			   killed because of this.

		3. Next three Roman Emperors (West).
			a. Ricimer (456-472).
			b. Romulus Augustulus (475-476).
			c. Odovacer (476-493).
				1) Displaced Romulus Augustulus.
				2) Sent the crown of the emperor to Constantinople
				   saying, "We don't need this."
				3) The "fall of Roman empire" is usually dated at
				   476 because of this.

	C. East.

		1. Zeno (474-491).
			a. Monophysite teaching lives on despite condemnation.
			b. Presented a problem to emperors who are afraid the
			   religious division will lead to political division.
			c. Zeno, in 482, issued a decree of union, also known as
			   HENOTICON.
				1) Unsuccessful attempt to ignore last two councils.
				2) Reaffirmed creeds of Nicaea & Const'ple, ignored
				   next two (Ephesus & Chalcedon) to avoid conflict

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				3) Any definitive statement about the nature of
				   Christ is avoided.
				4) Bishop of Rome refused to sign the Henoticon as
				   it condoned heresy by refusing to accept the
				   formulations of Ephesus and Chalcedon.
			d. Resulted in the Acacian Schism (482-519).
				1) Felix III splits with Acacius, bishop of
				   Constantinople.
				2) Henoticon is the issue.
				3) Temporary schism.

		2. Ostrogoths (475-526).
			a. Ostrogoths = "east goths"; Ruled by Theodoric, an
			   Arian Goth.
				1) Zeno, emperor in East, sends Ostrogoths to
				   destroy Odovacer in West.
				2) By 493 he had captured all of Italy except for
				   Ravenna, Odovacer's capital; besieges it,
				   Odovacer surrenders, truce is planned; Odovacer
				   killed in celebration.
			b. Theodoric rules Italy (493-526) with enlightened
		 	   tolerance--no persecution of orthodox Christians.
				1) Romans run government.
				2) Ostrogoths man the army.
			c. Theodoric involved in "marriage diplomacy."
				1) Married a sister of Franks' ruler.
				2) Gave his sister to king of Vandals.
				3) Gave his daughter to king of Visigoths.
				4) Gave another daughter to king of Burgundians.
			d. 523--Theodoric learns that Justin is planning an anti-
			   Arian edict.
				1) Orders John I (bishop of Rome) to Constantinople
				   to soften Justin's plans.
				2) John I is unsuccessful; Theodoric imprisons him
				   in 526.
				3) Theodoric dies that same year.
			e. Arianism is still held in the West by Vandals and
			   Ostrogoths.
				1) By the end of 6th century Visigoths convert to
				   orthodox (Catholic) Christianity.
				2) 589--3rd Council of Toledo--death-knell of
				   Arianism in the West.


XIII. JUSTINIAN AND THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE.

	A. Eastern Developments.




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		1. Theological issues in the East at this time:
			a. Nestorians are sliding from the scene.
			b. Monophysites are still strong in three regions:
				1) Egypt.
				2) Syria.
				3) Armenia. 

		2. Eastern politics:
			a. Zeno dies in 491; no son, but Ariadrie is widow.
				1) People of Constantinople want emperor who is a
				   strong Chalcedonian ruler.
				2) Demanded an orthodox Roman emperor.
			b. Anastasius I (491-518).
				1) Ariadrie marries Anastasius I--he meets these
				   qualifications; he is 60 years old.
					a) Lives on for 27 years!
					b) Begins as a strong Chalcedonian; drifts to
					   a more tolerant stance characteristic of
					   Zeno--this done out of desire for unity.
					c) Encouraged the Monophysites.
				2) Chariot races in Hippodrome, Constantinople.
					a) Factions w/i chariot racers--known by their
					   colors.
					b) 2 dominant ones--blues & greens (whites &
					   reds less dominant).
					c) Blues: represented aristocratic, Chalcedon-
					   ian orthodoxy; Greens: represent lower
					   classes who side with Monophysites.
					d) All Constantinople sided with one of these
					   two teams--often resulted in street riots.
				3) As Anastasius leaned toward more moderate
				   position, his life was threatened; survived
				   several attempts on his life; died in July 519.
			c. Justin I (518-527).
				1) Originally from Illyria (Yugoslavia); illiterate
				   peasant who joined army and rose through ranks.
				2) Wife Euphemia had been his slave and concubine
				   before he married her.
				3) Succeeded by nephew Justinian.

	B. Justinian (527-565).

		1. End of Acacian Schism.
			a. Justinian had vision of re-establishing Roman empire.
			b. First step: unify the Eastern & Western churches.
			c. "Formula of Union" adopted with bishop of Rome.
				1) Clear statement: Church of Rome is supreme
				   tribunal of all questions of faith & dogma.
				2) Said of Rome: One apostolic church in which true
				   apostolic faith has been kept in keeping with
				   Matt. 16:18.

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		2. Theodora (500-547).
			a. Procopius, historian, was laudatory of Justinian and
			   his family.
				1) Procopius also wrote The Secret History which did
				   not circulate until after his death.
				2) Filled with attacks on several people, including
				   Justinian and Theodora.
			b. OF THEODORA: Child of bear-keeper in circus (synon-
			   ymous with immorality); had a least one illegitimate
			   child; became mistress of Libyan governor; practiced
			   prostitution to get back to Constantinople; meet
			   Justinian and marries him eventually; Euphemia, the
			   current empress, refuses to allow this marriage--done
			   after her death according to Procopius; Theodora
			   became paragon of loyalty and faithfulness; all agree
			   on her outstanding beauty; at one point established a
			   reformatory for prostitutes.
			c. 532--Theodora saved Justinian's life.
				1) Usual chariot races in Constant'ple--with riots.
					a) Charioteers arrested--one man from each 
					   party is condemned to die as punishment.
					b) Before verdict is carried out, mob claimed
					   two men & put them in sanctuary in church.
					c) Gov't besieged the church and the people
					   revolted.
					d) Emperor besieged in his palace.
				2) Theodora shamed Justinian into calling out troops
				   who cleared the streets killing 30,000 resisters.
				3) During riot the church building burned; rebuilt
				   as Hagia Sophia--great architectural wonder.

		3. Justinian is the significant emperor in the East in this
		   period.
			a. Renamed the Byzantine Empire.
				1) Byzas--name of Greek trader who originally
				   established settlement known as "Byzantium."
				2) Became Constantinople in 330.
			b. Other accomplishments:
				1) Completed a revised law code--Justinian Code.
				2) Reformed the army (made them "lean & mean").
				3) Reformed government bureaucracy.
				4) Re-minted coinage.
				5) Raised taxes and established effective means for
				   collecting them.
				6) Kept peace with Persian Empire by paying yearly
				   fees.

		4. Reconquest of the West.
			a. Justinian's concern is not just to reconquer West but
			   to do so for orthodox Christianity as Germanic peoples
			   who control West at this time are Arian.

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			b. Planned to attack North Africa first, then Sicily,
			   Italy, and Europe.
				1) Hildaric on the throne in N. Africa; in 530 some
				   dissidents (under Gelimer) depose Hildaric and
				   imprison him.
				2) This gives Justinian the excuse to invade to
				   restore the rightful ruler.
				3) 533--16,000 men invade--unprecedented amphibious
				   invasion.
				4) Gelimer completely taken by surprise; kills
				   Hildaric.
				5) Dec. 533--decisive battle which defeats Vandals.
			c. Theodoric dies in 526; soon followed by Amalasuntha,
			   mother of Theodoric's 8 yr. old grandson.
				1) Amalasuntha killed; Justinian's excuse to invade.
				2) 535--Sicily falls quickly.
				3) Campaign to take Italy takes 18 yrs. and greatly
				   taxes strength of Byzantine Empire.
					a) Southern Italy, Naples fall quickly.
					b) By time reachs Rome things slow down; there
					   is offensive/counter-offensive and Rome
					   changes hands 7 times.
					c) Italy ravaged--put it back into Stone Age.
					d) Justinian ultimately wins,but the Byzantine
					   Empire is greatly weakened.

		5. Church-State Relations.
			a. West is developing idea that church is independent of
			   state and superior to it.
			b. Eastern Church has much closer Church-State relations.
				1) "Isapostolos"--title given Constantine--equal to
				    the apostles. 
				2) Eastern emperors maintained a virtual theocracy.
				3) Early councils were all called by emperors (this
				   determined whether or not they were ecumenical).
			c. Caesaropapaism--"Caesar and Pope."
				1) Term came into use during Justinian's time.
				2) Patriarch of Constantinople still exists;
				   functions as "Secretary of Religion" and is
				   subject to appointment.
				3) Clear understanding in the East that the Church
				   is subject to the State--not same understanding
				   in the West.

		6. Justinian and Paganism.
			a. A few centers of pagan religion have survived,
			   particularly in Greece.
			b. 529--Justinian closed last classical school in Athens.
			c. To be a teacher one must now be orthodox Christian;
			   pagan teachers go East into more tolerant Persia.
			d. Pagan thought--cf. Aristotle & mathematics--highly
			   influences Moslem world (and ours--Arabic numerals).

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		7. Monophysitism.
			a. Justinian was a Chalcedonian; in 527 he applied
			   stringent measures against Monophysitism; soon began
			   to back off (529).
				1) Theodora a firm Monophysite; likely influenced
				   Justinian's tolerance.
				2) Theodora evidently quite influential--in 530s she
				   subsidized Monophysite cause with state money.
			b. In 535 the Patriarch of Constantinople died; Justinian
			   chose Anthimus--sympathetic to Monophysites.
				1) Stalwart Chalcedonians not happy.
				2) About same time Agapetus, bishop of Rome, comes
				   to Constantinople on other business.
				3) Persuaded Justinian to replace Anthimus with a
				   Chalcedonian patriarch; Justinian sees this as
				   politically helpful in light of his plans to
				   conquer Italy.
				4) Agapetus dies while in Constantinople of natural
				   causes; Ostrogoth ruler in Rome appoints new
				   bishop, Silverius (536-537).
				5) Theodora tries to get Vigilius elected--he
				   promised to support Monophysitism; Vigilius goes
				   to Rome and in 537 replaces Silverius.
				6) Once installed, Vigilius is a firm Chalcedonian;
				   Theodora seeks revenge.
			c. In 532 Jacob, a Monophysite, becomes bishop of Odessa.
				1) Goes to Syria and begins a good work.
				2) Does job so well that there are Syrian Jacobites
				   in existence today.
			d. 540s--"Lesser Monophysites" attack Chalcedon on
			   another front.
				1) Willing to accept Christological statement.
				2) However, must ban writings of other "closet
				   Nestorians" approved by Chalcedon.
					a) Theodore of Mopsuestian (350-428).
					b) Theodore of Cyrruhus (393-458).
					c) Ibas of Edessa (435-457--bishop dates).
				3) If emperor condemns these writings the Lesser
				   Monophysites agree to live with Christology of
				   Chalcedon.
				4) 546--Justinian prepares "Edict of 3 Chapters" and
			   	   these three men and their writings are condemned.
					a) Commands Vigilius to come to Constantinople
					   and approve edict.
					b) Theodora encourages this to get back at
					   Vigilius; he refuses to come.
					c) Italian bishops uninterested in condemning
					   the works of these three men.
					d) Vigilius eventually arrested & brought to
					   Constantinople.
					e) 548--Vigilius forced to approve edict; West
					   protests; he backs off & suggests council

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		8. Fifth Ecumenical Council (553).
			a. Second Council of Constantinople.
				1) Vigilius refuses to be a part of the council.	
				2) Only 160 bishops arrive.
				3) Duly condemns work of the three theologians.
				4) Vigilius stoutly declares he will not condemn
				   them; jailed again.
			b. When Vigilius finally consents, he is returned to
			   Rome.
				1) Vigilius dies in Sicily on return trip--555.
				2) Justinian chooses a new bishop of Rome--offers
				   Pelagius the position if he accepts the decisions
				   of the 5th Council; Has difficulty with other
				   bishops.
			c. By the time Justinian dies, Syria, Armenia, and Egypt
			   had refused religious leadership of Byzantine Empire.


XIV. GREGORY THE GREAT.

	A. Empire affairs.
		1. Justin II (565-578).
			a. Followed Justinian; poor ruler; strongly orthodox and
			   Chalcedonian.
			b. By 572 Justin II is persecuting Monophysites.
		2. Ongoing problems with Persians in the East and with peoples
		   along the Danube River.
			a. These peoples:
				1) Lombards (West) ...... Germanic & Arian.
				2) Gepids (West) ........ Germanic & Arian.
				3) Avars (East) ......... Asiatic.
			b. Justin II had Lombards & Avars eliminate Gepids;
			   Avars strengthen and push Lombards into the empire.
			c. Justin II allows Lombards to move west toward Italy.
			d. Justinian's efforts at reconquest of the West are
			   erased when Lombards take Northern Italy (Po River
			   Valley) in 571.
			e. Italy will be fighting the Lombards for next 200 yrs.
				1) Theological problems (Arianism vs. orthodoxy).
				2) Ethnic problems (Germanic presence).
				3) Economic problems (more war ravages).

	B. Gregory the Great and His Times.

		1. Early life of Gregory the Great.
			a. Born in Rome in 540; direct descendent of Felix III;
			   family included Boethius; grew up Ostrogoth struggle.
			b. Attacked the study of classical Latin writers.
			c. 573--becomes city prefect of Rome ("mayor"); very year
			   the Lombards threaten the city.
				1) Had widespread civil authority (100 mile radius).
				2) Responsible for food supplies; water & sewer

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		2. Gregory's career as a diplomat.
			a. Could have risen far in civil government; 575 father
			   dies and he abandons political career.
			b. Gregory gave away his immense wealth, established six
			   monasteries and became a monk.
			c. 578--ordained deacon by bishop of Rome.
			d. 579--Pelagius II sends him on a mission to Const'nple;
			   purpose: convince East to send money and troops to
			   defend against the Lombards.
			e. Stays in Constantinople for six years; returns in 586
			   and learns that East is unable to help.

		3. Gregory's career as a churchman.
			a. 590--Plague devastates Rome.
				1) Bishop of Rome--Pelagius II--dies and Gregory is
				   elected new bishop of Rome.
				2) Must still be approved by Constantinople; elected
				   in Feb. but receives confirmation in late Summer.
				3) Plague continues: In April Gregory organizes pen-
				   itential effort to induce God to remove plague.
				   As procession moves through Rome it reaches
				   Hadrian's tomb.  Later legend tells of a vision
				   of archangel Michael sheathing his sword and
				   ceasing plague.  An angel now rests on top of
				   Hadrian's tomb.
			b. Gregory as bishop of Rome is major transition from
			   early church to the Middle Ages.
				1) Gregory, practically, is the first pope; he
				   represents the power of the papacy in the modern
				   understanding.
				2) Gregory's accomplishments regarding Rome and the
				   Papacy:
					a) Provides food supply when local government
					   is incapacitated.
					b) Collects taxes and distributes funds in the 
					   absence of government (this is done because
					   Lombards have cut off Ravenna, cap. city,
					   from rest of Italy).
					c) 595-Gregory arranges a peace with Lombards;
					   peace lasts for 100 years.
					d) Gregory ends up as a power broker because
					   of Byzantine govt's inability to do so.

		4. Ways in which Gregory exercises leadership.
			a. Church Administrator.
				1) Does same sorts of things he did as "mayor" of
				   Rome earlier in his career.
				2) Handles revenues of Church's vast real estate
				   holdings and commercial interests.



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			b. Archbishop.
				1) Used church officials to oversee clergy affairs--
				   acting as metropolitan of all Italy.
				2) Central Italy drawn together largely under his
				   strong leadership.
				3) Constantly asserts Rome's claims to universal
				   supremacy.
				4) Concerned about orthodoxy:
					a) Urges Egyptian bishops to suppress 
					   Donatism.
					b) Keeps a Lombard/Arian from becoming bishop
					   of Milan.
					c) 602--newly born son of king & queen of the
					   Lombards receives orthodox baptism and is
					   raised orthodox.
			c. Relationship with Constantinople.
				1) Italy is still a part of Byzantine empire.
				2) Gregory believes Rome is chief over all churches,
				   East & West; bishops everywhere subject to Rome.
				3) 588--problem develops--John the Faster, in East
				   at Constantinople, assumes title, "Ecumenical
				   Patriarch"; when Gregory becomes bishop in 590 he
				   protests.  Much bitterness between the two. 
				4) Gregory acknowledges Eastern ruler's civil
				   authority; is respectful and diplomatic.
			d. Relationship with Western Rulers.
				1) Referred to rulers of Franks, Burgundians, etc.
				   as "sons"; gave them orders; did not do this to
				   Eastern emperor.
				2) Gregory had become convinced the future of the
				   Church is with the West and not East (learned
				   during 6 years at Const'nple.
			e. Evangelization of England.
				1) Tradition: Gregory loved puns.  Walking through
				   the Roman marketplace saw handsome men being sold
				   as slaves.  Asked, was told they were Angles. 
				   "They are not Angles, but angels!"  What country?
				   Deira.  "De ira, saved from wrath" (literal
				   meaning).  Who is their king?  Aella.  "Ah,
				   Hallelujah!"
				2) Early in his career Gregory set out for England; 
				   stopped to eat lunch; locust jumped on page of
				   his book.  Locust = locu sta ("stay in your
				   place"); messenger arrives telling him of death
				   of Pelagius II and that he was needed in Rome.
				3) 596--sent an Augustine with 12 monks to England
				   to do missionary work.
					a) Bertha, daughter of Frankish king, marries
					   Ethelbert, king of Kent.
					b) Augustine is able to build on Bertha's
					   foundation.
					c) Spring 597--Ethelbert converts and many
					   others; SE England rapidly evangelized

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				4) England now brought into Roman orbit.
					a) Christianity still present in the Western
					   British Isles.
					b) Augustine learns of this and makes contact;
					   meet at Wessex.
					c) Western Christians are surprised at Rome's
					   claim of authority over them.
					d) Celtic Christians and Roman Christians are
					   not united until 664.
					e) Roman-oriented English Christianity later
					   influenced continental Christianity and its
					   relation to Rome during the Middle Ages.

		5. Gregory the Great's diverse roles.
			a. Pastor.
				1) Gregory signed all his letters, "Gregory, servant
				   of the servants of God."
				2) Wrote THE PASTORAL RULE on how to be a good
				   bishop; widely read through the Middle Ages.
				3) Shed a positive light on Rome.
			b. Monastic.
				1) Wrote biography of Benedict.
				2) Former monk; established at least 7 monasteries.
				3) 593--Lombards attack Monte Cassino; monks flee to
				   Rome; Gregory learns of Benedict from these
				   monks, some of whom knew him personally.
				4) 596--Augustine leaves for England and a
				   Benedictine monastery is established.
				5) Gregory put monasteries under papal jurisdiction.
			c. Theologian.
				1) Has a reputation as a theologian although he is
				   not a deep intellectual.
				2) Understood theology as practical application.
				3) Favors veneration of relics--stresses the need
				   to determine their authenticity.
				4) First Western theologian to make a significant
				   point about purgatory (idea is already current).

	C. Transition to the Middle Ages.

		1. Gregory was a transition figure to Middle Ages.
			a. Gregory contributes to the step backward intellect-
			   ually by his lack of emphasis on academics and his
			   focus on pastoral concerns.
			b. Faithful to Augustinian corpus of theology and passes
			   it on with little variation; beginning of "dogma to be
			   believed, not faith to be understood!"

		2. Gregory's confidence in doctrine, dogma and authority is
		   typical of the Medieval Church.

[Roddy Chestnut; 147 Green Acres Dr.; Stafford, VA  22554; 703-659-2456 (office).]